Introduction to the 2026 Manual

The National Center on Educational Outcomes (NCEO) currently lists over 800 publications on its website. These publications represent the efforts of NCEO staff over the years and have helped garner NCEO’s high-standing national and international reputation. The final copy editing and formatting of NCEO documents take significant time, time that can be reduced with the help of everyone who writes reports. This style guide was developed to help you prepare your final copy of your documents; by following the recommendations of this guide, you will help improve the efficiency of the entire publication cycle.

This manual addresses general and common questions and is not intended to be all-comprehensive. When in doubt, please check appropriate resources—especially the current APA Publication Manual.

If you have any questions about the NCEO style guide, or anything else related to the NCEO publication process, please contact Michael Moore at moore031@umn.edu.

Style Standards for Projects Other than NCEO

The style standards listed here apply to all projects besides NCEO. For most cases, the name “NCEO” can be replaced by the project name.

General Style Standards

As a general rule, NCEO uses the most current edition of the American Psychological Association (APA) Publication Manual for editorial style and system for citations. “APA Style” refers to the editorial style that many of the social and behavioral sciences have adopted to present written material in the field, which includes NCEO publications. This style concerns uniform use of such elements as:

• punctuation and abbreviations
• construction of tables
• selection of headings
• citations of references
• presentation of statistics
• using “bias-free” language
• many other elements that are a part of every manuscript

For more information on APA style, see the APA Publication Manual (Seventh Edition) or the APA Style website.

This style guide provides frequently used examples of correct style but it is not a comprehensive list of APA style; rather, it is to serve as a quick-look guide. You should familiarize yourself with the APA Publication Manual and always keep a copy handy for reference. NCEO staff are provided copies of the APA Publication Manual. If you do not have one, please tell the NCEO director. The manual is also available online at the APA Style website .

Frequently Used Examples of Correct Style

In all material referring to NCEO, the acronym should be defined in the first usage, and used in each reference for the remainder of the report. Define the acronym by giving the full name of the organization followed by the acronym in parentheses. This holds true when referring to any other acronyms that are included in your material.

Example: The National Center on Educational Outcomes (NCEO) recently published a report on students with disabilities....

Note: The article “the” does not precede the use of an acronym. For example, “Since its establishment, NCEO has worked with states and federal agencies....”

Other Examples of Frequently Used Style

• Use a single space after periods and colons. Example: The girl ran fast. When she was done running, she rested.
• Use a comma before and or or in a series of three or more items. Example: Portfolios provide teachers, students, and their parents with tangible evidence of student performance.
• Do not use underlines for emphasis. If you wish to indicate italics, use italics.
• When referring to the NCEO website, use the URL “www.nceo.info.”

Document Conventions

Naming Conventions for NCEO Files

NCEO employs conventions for naming document files to help everyone identify documents, even when they are not in the context of their folders.

The general convention to be used for file names is: Project_DocumentName_YYYYMMDD

Project

NCEO PIs should decide on a clear acronym or short phrase at the beginning of new grants, for example, “MELC” for Minnesota English Learner Companion.

Document Name

If we keep the names of similar documents consistent, then they will group together. It will be useful to use common abbreviations, for example. Int for Interview or Mtg for Meeting.

YYYYMMDD

This is the ISO standard for dates. If followed consistently, it will put similar documents into chronological order.

Additional Elements for Naming Conventions

Use “_” (underscore) to separate the major components, as well as any suffixes (such as personal initials or “final”). Never us a period “.” anywhere in the file name. Avoid spaces and special characters.

Examples

MELC_Ch4_20230201 DIAMOND_ImprvInstr_ContentNotes_20180423NCEO_MtgNotes_20230119_V01_crNCEO_MtgNotes_20220719_V03_final

Best Practices for File Naming

• Put elements in order from general to specific.
• Dates should appear as YYYYMMDD or YYMMDD to keep them in order.
• Sequential numbering should include at least two digits (i.e., v01 instead of v1) to keep the versions in order.

Fonts

Reports should be readable with comfortable margins. The ideal recommendation is to use 12-point type, double space, with one inch margins on all sides. For the sake of easy readability, use fonts like Arial or Helvetica Bold for headings and Times New Roman for body text.

Heading Levels

Choosing the levels of your headlines and subheads is a required element of writing NCEO publications. The choices you make will generally reflect how cogently you have conceptualized your report. Please give deliberate thought to the levels you choose. For more information, see Chapter 4, “Writing Style and Grammar” in the APA Publication Manual. NCEO uses the following conventions but are merely suggestions. The Default Settings in Word work fine.

1. Headline: 14-pt Arial Bold (or Helvetica Bold/sans serif)
2. First Subhead: 12-pt Arial (or Helvetica/sans serif)
3. Second Subhead: 12-pt New Times Roman bold

You can change the font, point size, etc. by right clicking on the heading style and choose “Modify.” The exact point size and font is not critical. Web Pubs will style headings automatically.

Note: There is no need to make a Table of Contents in your Word document. The Table of Contents in Web Pubs is generated by the heading levels.

Formatted Lists

Use your software’s built-in list function for making bulleted or numbered lists. Do not make lists by manually inserting numbers, characters, images, or other symbols before list items.

Step 1: Make your list

Step 2: Highlight your list

Step 3: Select bullets or numbering from the menu

See the Accessible U webpage on formatted lists for more.

Tables

We describe here how to develop accessible tables that follow Title II guidelines, but NCEO requires that tables be described in words in the text AND to follow the conventions below.

Avoid Complex Tables

Simple tables are easier for users of assistive technologies to understand and navigate. Large tables with many columns need to be broken down to multiple, small tables. Also NCEO does not publish tables with merged cells or multiple header rows.

Please note that NCEO publications are now published on a platform that is responsive to different devices, from smart phones to desktop computers.

Include Content in All Cells

When they encounter empty cells within tables, both visual and screen reader users may wonder if data was omitted by mistake. In addition, screen reader software may skip reading empty data cells, causing mismatches between header rows and their corresponding data cells.

Include text such as "not applicable," "none,", "NA", etc. to indicate that there is no data in empty cells. Do not leave any cells empty.

Table Summary

When you include a table in a Word document that will be published in Word or submitted to a journal (and not to be published with NCEO's Web Publications), it is recommended to also include a table summary because they are helpful for screen readers.

You can place the table summary in the table properties panel, under the Alt Text tab: With the table selected, in Table Tools select Layout, then Properties, and click on the Alt Text tab. At the alt text tab there are two fields, one for the title of the table and one for the description, as shown in this screenshot:

Repeating Header Rows

As with the Table Summary, if you are submitting a Word document for publication outside of NCEO or publishing the document in Word and not with NCEO's Web Pubs, tables that span across multiple pages need to to repeat rows. To do so, select the row(s) you want to repeat, then click the Layout tab and select "Repeat Header Rows." Alternatively, you can right-click the row, select Table Properties, go to the Row tab, and check the box for Repeat as header row at the top of each page.

Additional Table Conventions

• Use default settings for point sizes and fonts.
• Do not use abbreviations or symbols in tables unless lack of space makes it absolutely necessary (e.g., “Percent” instead of “%” or “Language” instead of “Lang”).
• Spell out the names of states entirely whenever possible (e.g., “New York” instead of “NY”). Also, alphabetize by the spelled-out name. For example, even in a list of state abbreviations, Iowa comes last among the states beginning with “I”.
• State names when spelled out should be upper lower and not all caps, for example, "Alabama" and not "ALABAMA."
• The word “percentage” is not equivalent in parlance to “percent,” and “percent” is the preferred term.

Example of table following NCEO conventions:

For more on making accessible tables, see the Office of Digital Accessibility's Tables webpage .

Color and Contrast

Just because it looks one way to you when you design your documents, it does not mean it will look that way to your audience. Users of adaptive technologies such as screen magnifiers can change the way colors look on their personal display, for example, high contrast mode. Some users may be looking at your content while standing in bright sunlight. Some may have an older computer monitor with different color calibration settings. Other users may be color blind or have low vision. Although you can never control (or know) what your users see, you can follow these two simple rules:

1. Make sure your colors have strong contrasts between them.
2. Never use color alone to show emphasis. Best practice uses both contrasting color AND patterns.

General Best Practices for Color and Contrast

Choose colors that have distinct contrasts between them. See figure (below) for an example of differentiated contrasts and colors. The Accessible U webpage on contrast has more on people seeing colors differently, including different types of color blindness, and best practices on making strong contrast.

Links

Well-written and well-placed links help both sighted people and those who use screen readers or other adaptive technology to make use of content. Research has shown that sighted users typically scan pages for links to help them find what they are looking for. People using screen readers can do something similar by touching a button and hearing a list of all the links on a page. Well-placed links provide enough context to help all users make an informed decision about which links they want to follow.

To view a demonstration of a screen reader with examples of good and bad links and how a screen reader like JAWS handles this information, see this video on making links accessible .

For further information on making accessible links and much more on the dos and don’ts, as well as “how-to” information, see the Accessible U webpage on Links .

Do

Embed most links within the text. Write as you normally would, then highlight the text you want to make into a link, and insert the link. In many applications, the shortcut is control and k on a Windows machine or command and k on a Mac, after you highlight the text to link. For emails, type out email addresses and then link the email address.

Examples of good links:

There are several things to consider in creating accessible link text .

Learn the difference between accessible, usable, and universal design .

Don't

Do not use phrases like “click here” or “read more.”

Do not display the actual URL as a link. Adaptive technologies users will have to listen while their screen reader reads every single character of the URL. The only exception is when displaying the full URL as part of a citation in the References section.

Examples of bad links:

There are several things to consider in creating accessible link text. Learn more .

Click here to learn the difference between accessible, usable, and universal design.

Figures

We describe how to provide alternative text (alt text) below, but NCEO requires that figures be described in words in the text AND to add alt text.

Alt Text

All figures must have alt text. Use the following directions to add alt text to a figure.

Right-click the object and select Edit Alt Text.

Select the object and then select the format menu for the object, for example, Picture Format. Select Alt Text.

Note: To add alt text to the entire SmartArt graphic or chart, click the border of the SmartArt graphic or chart, and not an individual shape or piece.

In the Alt Text pane, type 1-2 sentences in the text box to describe the object and its context to someone who cannot see it.

Additional Practices for Figures

• Colors should display well on the screen, especially for users who are color blind.
• Titles should be in upper/lower case, and above the figure. In other words, all title text (besides articles with four letters or fewer) should begin with a capital letter.
• Figures made in Word need to be editable. If you have a figure in your Word document, we will need to be able to click on the figure to make changes, including the legend information. If the figure was not made in Word, the document needs to have the corresponding Excel file when submitted for editing. If your figure cannot be opened, you may be contacted to make changes to your figures during the publication process and resubmit new versions.

Example of figure with accessible contrast

Example comes from the Accessible U webpage on contrast . See this webpage for more on how to make accessible figures and other graphics.

PowerPoints

Project Specific Templates

Many projects have specific PPT templates that should be used when presenting unless a conference gives a template to be used. Check with the PI if you have questions.

NCEO Templates

NCEO PowerPoint templates can be found in NCEO's Google Drive, “NCEO PowerPoint templates.”

PowerPoint Alt Text

For a shape, picture, chart, table, SmartArt graphic, or other object in a slide, right click the photo or art, click Format Picture (or “Format Shape” if a graphic). Under the heading “Format Picture”, click on the Size and Properties icon, then click on Alt Text.

In the Description box, enter an explanation of the shape, picture, chart, table, SmartArt graphic, or other object. This box should always be filled in. The example below reads, “Children sitting at school computers.”

The Title box should only be filled in if you are entering a detailed or long explanation in the Description box.

In summary: Right click the photo or art, click Format Object, click on the icon that is for “Size and Properties”, and after clicking on Alt Text below enter the alt text in the Description box.

PowerPoint Accessibility Check

Use PowerPoint's “Check Accessibility” button as a final step. Go to "Review" in the top menu, and select the "Check Accessibility" icon, then select "Check Accessibility." The icon looks like this:

This is a really important step that will highlight if you have forgotten alt text, if your images on a slide are in an usual order that will be difficult for screen readers, etc. Do not skip it!

See the Accessible U webpage on alternative text for more.

Plain Language/Readability Level

All staff should monitor the Flesch–Kincaid Readability Index for the grade-level readability of their writing. The Grade Level score shows the U.S. school grade needed to understand the text, helping you tailor content for your audience.

We aim for the following readability levels:

• SEA staff and policymakers: grade 12–12.9
• Parents: grade 8–9
• Researcher-only audience: grade 12–15

The index reflects sentence length, word complexity, use of passive voice, and the readability increases when words of three or more syllables are used. To meet targets, keep only essential technical terms, choose simpler alternatives for non-essential words, use active voice, and split long, complex sentences into multiple shorter sentences.

You can calculate readability in Microsoft Word but it may be easiest to use an AI tool. In your AI tool type this specific prompt: “Calculate the Flesch-Kincaid grade level of this text.” Then copy and paste your text into the AI tool. AI should come up with either a grade range or a specific grade level.

What is ADA Title II, WCAG, and the meaning of the different WCAG levels?

NCEO is a federally funded center that is affiliated with the Institute on Community Integration (ICI) at the University of Minnesota. This statement has serious implications for policy compliance, on federal, university, and ICI levels. This is especially true where accessibility is concerned.

This section of the NCEO Style Guide focuses on these levels of compliance related to accessibility. These policies also inform issues around branding that can be found elsewhere in this style guide.

Federal policy: ADA Title II

What is ADA Title II?

This federal ADA rule (also "Title II of the ADA") mandates that public universities ensure their digital tools, including internal and external websites and mobile applications, are accessible and meet the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 2.1 AA standard (WCAG). More information, especially on the legal obligations of federal policy, is available on the University Office of Digital Accessibility (ODA) website . This rule, also called a regulation, is to make sure that all services, programs, and activities by state and local governments (which includes any agencies or departments of state or local governments) are accessible to people with disabilities. "State and local governments" also include public schools, community colleges, and public universities.

When is the Deadline?

The University must comply with the ADA Title II digital accessibility rule by April 24, 2026. A DOJ fact sheet summarizing this new rule is available.

Who is Responsible?

Everyone is responsible for meeting ADA Title II. Communications and IT teams can assist with identifying current work that needs to be reviewed for accessibility and consult on best practices on how to handle work that falls short of meeting ADA Title II guidelines.

ICI and the WCAG Level AA Standard

ICI requires all departments and centers to adhere to WCAG’s Level AA. This is the level that University of Minnesota policy requires.

There are three levels of conformance, Level A (Minimum), Level AA (Mid-range), and Level AAA (Highest).

WCAG defines three levels of conformance:

• Level A (Minimum): This is the baseline level addressing the most basic accessibility barriers. It ensures that content is possible for people with disabilities to use, but significant barriers may still remain. Level A conformance requires using alternative text for images, but very little else. This level of conformance only barely meets the needs of users with disabilities.
• Level AA (Mid-range/Recommended): This level includes all Level A criteria plus additional requirements that provide broader accessibility and usability for most users and situations. Level AA is the standard most organizations, including educational and public sectors, aim for and is often cited in legal requirements and international regulations like the European Accessibility Act and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in the U.S.
• Level AAA (Highest): This is the most stringent level of conformance, including advanced criteria for the highest possible level of accessibility. The W3C does not recommend requiring Level AAA conformance for entire websites because it is not possible to satisfy all success criteria for some types of content.

Level AA: The Gold Standard

The middle level WCAG standard, Level AA, is the most widely adopted global benchmark for digital accessibility, including for legal compliance. Level AA builds upon Level A by adding criteria that support accessibility in a wider variety of contexts, improving the experience for a broader range of users, including those with moderately low vision or cognitive impairments.

Conforming to Level AA means digital assets meet all criteria for both Level A and Level AA, requiring features like sufficient color contrast, clear heading structures, visible focus indicators, and compatible keyboard navigation. This requirement is considered more achievable than the highest Level AAA.

Examples of Level AA criteria (which include all Level A criteria) include:

• Ensuring a minimum color contrast ratio of 4.5:1 between text and its background to ensure readability for people with low vision.
• Allowing text to be resized up to 200% without loss of content or functionality.
• Providing captions for all live and prerecorded video content.
• Ensuring consistent and logical navigation mechanisms throughout the website.
• Using properly structured and nested headings (e.g., H1, H2) to organize content logically.

In summary, Level A ensures basic functionality, while Level AA ensures a practical and usable experience for the majority of users, which is why it is the standard many accessibility laws and policies refer to.

Statement about Responsibility for ADA Title II Compliance at ICI and Client Work

The following is a statement on ADA Title II compliance for all ICI departments and centers, including NCEO. This statement includes work that we do for clients and grants.

• If a product is published by ICI or affiliated projects, it must follow Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.1 level AA standards.
• If a group at ICI is paid on contract to make a finished product it hands over to a client, it must follow WCAG 2.1 level AA standards.
• If a group at ICI writes a grant that includes creation of a product that is handed over to the client, it must follow WCAG 2.1 level AA standards.
• If a group at ICI is handing over text that a client or collaborator will take and make into its own product and put on their own website, the client/collaborator is responsible for ADA Title II compliance. This exception is ONLY if we are providing just text that has no tables or graphics. If there are headings in the text, we still need to style the heading levels. It should be noted that NCEO third party grants and contracts are usually from entities that are required to follow ADA Title II. It would be irresponsible to provide work that does not meet the WCAG 2.1 level AA standards.

Clients may ask for PDFs or Word documents as a required format per contracts. If this is the case please discuss with Kristi and Michael first. Ideally before the contract is written to ensure that intellectual property is appropriately represented in the contract, staffing has been planned for to ensure ADA Title II compliance (if we finalize the products), etc. This additional work may take extra staff hours.

Please note that when NCEO is paid on contract or grant to provide a finished product, the client or collaborator may not know about ADA Title II and will need to understand why NCEO is adhering to WCAG 2.1 level AA standards and that this is part of our work, and our client or collaborator is expected to follow ADA Title II standards after delivery.

For more, see ICI’s Intranet page on Accessibility and Title II . ICI provides many resources for learning how to meet these policies, grouped into categories like “I have 5 minutes,” “I have 30 minutes,” etc.

Using AI for NCEO Publications

It is permitted to use AI in your work. For example, AI does a good job making draft alt text when you upload an image to your AI software. However, any use of AI requires diligent editing. AI can drop important terms as well as make things up entirely. This can especially be true for references where it has made up journals that do not exist. Also, AI can generate prose that has an informal tone that does not match our writing style.

Caution on AI-Generated Images

Staff are strongly discouraged from using AI-generated images in publications. These images may be poor quality, may draw on copyrighted material or intellectual property without clear attribution, and may not be accessible. If a specific case arises where an AI-generated image is essential, consult the PI and Publications Director before use.

As UMN employees, we have access to Gemini, Google's generative AI tool with enterprise-grade security. You can find Gemini in your list of Google apps.

Communicating about Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion

Diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) guidance in this section applies differently depending on the product and funding source. Anything published on the NCEO website, even if an affiliated project's product, will comply with OSEP's guidance to NCEO on language. Please talk with the NCEO leadership about current guidelines. Staff should use DEI best practices as described in the paragraphs that follow, for manuscripts, external grant products or contract products, and other writing not published on the NCEO website.

In theory, anything published on the NCEO website, even if an affiliated project’s product, needs to comply. These products are visible to the Federal government and will be thought of as NCEO products even if they are not.

Why DEI Matters

Recent local and world events have put a spotlight on disproportionately underrepresented communities. Internal and external communications can provide clarity, support, and a sense of safety and belonging. Diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) work must be a part of everything we do. For many people, DEI communications is new for them. With that in mind we provide a handful of resources that can help writers and researchers better communicate about our diverse, multicultural world with accuracy and sensitivity.

Pronouns and Singular “They”

The APA Publication Manual has a significant section devoted to the use of pronouns. See 4.16-4.21. Section 4.18 on Singular “They” represents the current academic use of “they” as a singular pronoun. To summarize the key elements of this section:

The singular “they” is a generic third-person singular pronoun in English. Use of the singular “they” is endorsed as part of APA Style because it is inclusive of all people and helps writers avoid making assumptions about gender. Although usage of the singular “they” was once discouraged in academic writing, many advocacy groups and publishers have accepted and endorsed it, including Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary.

• Always use a person’s self-identified pronoun, including when a person uses the singular “they” as their pronoun.
• Also use “they” as a generic third-person singular pronoun to refer to a person whose gender is unknown or irrelevant to the context of the usage.
• Do not use “he” or “she” alone as generic third-person singular pronouns. Use combination forms such as “he or she” and “she or he” only if you know that these pronouns match the people being described.
• Do not use combination forms such as “(s)he” and “s/he.”
• If you do not know the pronouns of the person being described, reword the sentence to avoid a pronoun or use the pronoun “they.”

Section 4.18 of the APA Publication Manual provides further clarification, examples, and a chart showing strategies to write sentences so they follow this style. Additional information is also provided in Section 5.5 Gender, which includes gender and pronoun usage and terms that imply binary genders.

Use of Language Aligned with Federal Priorities (Center Publications Only)

For Center-produced, OSEP-funded publications, OSEP has directed us to align language with federal priorities and emphasize the assessment of students with disabilities. Because requirements are context dependent, staff should exercise care with wording and avoid terms that may conflict with federal guidance, including but not limited to:

English learners with disabilities

Preferred: “students with disabilities who are English learners” (when possible – length may be a factor)

Equity / equitable

Diversity / diverse

Culturally responsive / cultural competency

Disproportionality

Biased

This list is illustrative, not exhaustive. OSEP has previously required revisions to published Center documents based on wording, so careful review is essential. When unsure how to balance DEI best practices with funding requirements, consult the PI and Publications Director.

Diversity Resources

• APA Publication Manual, Chapter 5 “Bias-free Language Guidelines.” This chapter of the APA Publication Manual gives general guidelines for reducing bias in your writing, along with sections devoted to reducing bias by topic that include topics as age, disability, racial and ethnic identity, sexual orientation, and others.
• UMN Tools for Communicating About Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion developed by the Office for Equity and Diversity (OED).
• The Diversity Style Guide , a glossary of diversity terms
• The GLAAD Media Reference Guide , glossaries and full articles focusing on LGBTQ communities
• The Disability Language Style Guide with general guidelines and glossary of terms
• The UMN Anti-Racism Reading Lists , a compendium of resources and books now anti-racism and racial equity
• ADA Guide for Writing About People with Disabilities

Correct APA and General Usage

• Use a single space after periods and colons.
• Use a comma before and or or in a series of three or more items. In other words, a comma should precede “and” or “or” when the series is three or more words. The only exception to this rule is in newspaper writing that follows Associated Press (AP) style. AP standards are not used in academia. Example: the height, width, or depth
• Use hyphens with compound words that modify a noun. The main rule to remember is that a compound phrase used to modify a noun usually needs hyphens. When the compound phrase is not modifying a noun, do not use hyphens. For example, “Several sources of data provide information that can be used to strengthen decision-making processes....” And, “NCEO has compiled information and evidence about recommended practices for assessment decision making.” See Section 6.12 in the APA Publication Manual.
• Use an em dash instead of a hyphen. An em dash (the width of an m) is longer than a hyphen or an en dash and is used to set off an element added to amplify or digress from the main clause (e.g., “Studies—published and unpublished—are included”). There is no space before or after an em dash. In Word select Insert > Symbols and click on Symbol, then select "Em Dash."
• Use an en dash when appropriate. An en dash, roughly the width of an n, is a little longer than a hyphen. It is used for periods of time when you might otherwise use to. For example, “In the years 2008–2009….” In addition, an en dash is used between words of equal weight in a compound adjective (e.g., “a high school–college conference”). Like the em dash, use no space before or after. For more on dashes, see Chapter 6.6 of the APA Publication Manual. In Word select Insert > Symbols and click on Symbol, then select “En Dash.”
• Use person-first language when writing about disabilities. For instance, write “person with a disability” instead of “disabled person.” Do not use generic labels for disability groups, such as the deaf, the blind, and so on. Emphasize people not labels.
• Use of singular “they” is endorsed. The use of “they” as a singular pronoun is proper usage. See “Pronouns and Singular ‘They’” in this style guide, and 4.18 in the APA Publication Manual.
• List out full names before using acronyms. The acronym should be defined in the first usage, and used in each reference for the remainder of the piece. Define the acronym by giving the full name of the organization, followed by the acronym in parentheses. Please remember that “the” does not precede the acronym.
• Use active rather than the passive voice as appropriate. See the APA Publication Manual, especially 4.13, for guidance on when to select active voice.

Poor usage: The survey was conducted in a controlled setting.

Better: We conducted the survey in a controlled setting.

Poor usage: The experiment was designed by Olsen (2002).

Better: Olsen (2002) designed the experiment.

• Assure that your content is accurate. Look up the spelling of names, verify the correct citations, check your facts for accuracy, etc.
• Make language straightforward. For instance, “identification of resources” could instead be, “identify resources.”
• Use real words. Sometimes when you use a spell checker—which should be frequently—it will stop on a word that it says it is not in the dictionary. Sometimes that is because the word really is not in the dictionary.
• Avoid repeating words in a sentence.
• Use consistent word combinations. For example, do not use “resource mapping” and “mapping resources” in the same sentence. Choose one and stick with it.
• Use numerals to express numbers 10 and above and words to express numbers below 10. See Section 6.32 in the APA Publication Manual for more on this rule and exceptions and special usages.
• Use consistent verb tense in bulleted or numbered lists. Begin items in a list with the same word type (noun, verb, adjective).
• Provide person’s title, organization, and location when quoting someone. When you quote someone or paraphrase what someone said, be sure to include the person’s title, organization, and location. For example, John Smith, Acting Director of AXIS Youth Programs of Atlanta, GA, said there has been a significant increase in the number of youth with disabilities receiving services from his organization.
• Do not use semicolons for commas and vice versa. In general, semicolons separate independent clauses when not connected by a conjunction, and they separate items in a series if the items are long or complex or have internal punctuation. See a style manual for further elaboration (resources are provided at the end of this guide).

The following is an example of separate independent clauses not connected by a conjunction:

The following is an example of a series with complex punctuation:

• The word “data” is plural. For example, “the data were...” instead of “the data was...”. Also, use the word “students” instead of “kids” unless you are writing about goats.
• Avoid contractions. For example, write “they are” instead of “they’re” or “do not” instead of “don’t”.
• Avoid using and/or. It is understood that the use of or includes and. In the rare sentence that requires such a construction, write instead item 1, item 2, or both (not “transcripts and/or entrance scores,” but “transcripts, entrance scores, or both”).
• Do not overuse the word "however." One of the most overused words in report writing is “however.” Often this word can be discarded and not change the meaning of a sentence. Refer to a style manual for proper punctuation of this adverb.
• Never use the word “thing” or “things.” You should be able to find a better noun.
• Place a comma or period following a quotation—or part of a quotation—inside the quotation marks.

Correct Spelling of Technology Terms

The spellings of terms related to technology evolve over time. See 6.11 in the APA Publication Manual. Use the following spellings for some common technology words:

database: One word

email: Lowercase “e”, no hyphen (note that when citing an email, to specify as "personal communication")

emoji: For the plural, either “emoji” or “emojis”

e-reader

homepage: One word

internet: Lower case

login: Use “log in” when used as a verb. It is one-word, "login" when used as noun or adjective. For example, you "log in" to an account using your "login" credentials.

online: Not capitalized unless at start of sentence, and not hyphenated

PDF

URL

username

webpage: One word and lower case

website: One word and lower case

Wi-Fi

Latin Abbreviations

Use the following standard Latin abbreviations only in parenthetical material; in nonparenthetical material, use the English translation of the Latin terms. In both cases, include the correct punctuation that accompanies the term:

cf. = compare

e.g., = for example

, etc. = , and so forth

i.e., = that is,

viz., = namely,

vs. = versus, against

Exceptions: Use the abbreviation v. (for versus) in references and text citations to court cases, whether parenthetical or not.

In the reference list and in text, use the Latin abbreviation et al., which means and others, in nonparenthetical as well as parenthetical material. Refer to the APA Publication Manual for the proper uses of et al. Please note that no period follows et and a period follows al.

Additional Style Mechanics

More style mechanics can be found in the APA Publication Manual. Chapter 6, “Mechanics of Style” offers further guidance on style mechanics, including capitalization, abbreviations, use of numbers. For example, use one space after a period (6.1), and guidance for when to use a period in abbreviations and when not to (6.2 in the APA Publication Manual).

Chapter 4, “Writing Style and Grammar” offers guidance that includes verb tenses, use of voice, mood, subject and verb agreement. See 4.12-4.15 in the APA Publication Manual; also common mistakes including that/which (4.21); who/whom (4.20); who/that (4.19).

References

In-text Citations

Number of Authors to Include in In-Text Citations

For a work with one or two authors, include the author name(s) in every citation.

For a work with three or more authors, include the name of only the first author plus “et al.” in every citation, including the first citation, unless doing so would create ambiguity (see Section 8.18).

Examples of In-text Citation Styles:

For more on in-text citations, see 8.10-8.22 in the APA Publication Manual. The manual provides many examples and guidance on how to handle issues like “same author and same date,” “authors with the same surname,” and “how to avoid ambiguity.”

Citations in Reference List

Book references omit publisher location. This makes it easier since you do not need to worry about whether the book was printed in New York or Indianapolis or anywhere else.

The Use of DOI in References. The APA Publication Manual explains the convention of including the Digital Object Identifier (DOI) in the reference if one is assigned. Developed by a group of international publishers, the DOI System provides a means of persistent identification for managing information on digital networks. A general reference form for a Periodical using a DOI looks like this:

See Sections 9.34-.36 in the APA Publication Manual for more information, as well as www.doi.org .

Standardization on use of DOIs and URLs. This includes always include a DOI for works that have a DOI, regardless of whether you used the online version or the print version. If an online work has both a DOI and a URL, include only the DOI. If an online work has a URL but no DOI, include the URL. The manual provides extensive directions on how to do so. See 9.34-9.36 in the APA Publication Manual.

Use hyperlinks for DOIs as well as for URLs (in reference list). Be consistent in the formatting of DOI numbers. Use of shortened DOIs and URLs are accepted. Instructions are included about how to obtain short URLs. See 9.36 in the APA Publication Manual.

Standard Format for Citations. When a DOI is not provided, follow the standard usage for citing your references. See Chapter 9 of the APA Publication Manual for additional information and examples.

Periodical:

Nonperiodical:

Retrieval date. The retrieval date is not required for a “stable” or archived source. Use a retrieval date only for sources that can be updated or inherently designed to change (e.g., Twitter profile, Facebook page, map generated by Google Maps, work on a website that updates frequently). Format as:

Retrieved October 11, 2025, from https://xxxx

See 9.16 and Chapter 10, examples 14, 100, and 112 in the APA Publication Manual.

Additional notes on citations in reference lists:

• Number of authors to include in reference list—up to 20—are listed before use of ellipsis. If there are 21 or more authors, include the first 19 authors’ names, insert an ellipsis (but not ampersand), and then add the final author’s name. See 9.8 in the APA Publication Manual.
• Please note the space between initials (e.g., Author, A. A., & Author, B. B.)
• Titles are written in lower case.
• Write “n.d.” for documents with no date (where date is usually listed).
• Reference lists should be alphabetized.
• When multiple works by different authors are cited within the same parentheses, follow alphabetical order by the first author’s surname. Separate the citations with semicolons. For example, “Several studies (Bald, 1980; Kamil, 2002; Pepperberg & Funk, 1990)....”
• Please use the following convention when citing NCEO reports in the References:

• Pay close attention to commas, periods, spaces between letters, capitalization, and what is italicized. If you do not do them correctly, your work may come back to you to fix.

Electronic References

Electronic sources include aggregated databases, online journals, websites or webpages, newsgroups, web- or email-based discussion groups, and web- or email-based newsletters.

Online Journal

Online Document

If the author of a document is not identified, begin the reference with the title of the document.

Links should be live because the publications are published online.

Document Available on University Program or Department Website

If a document is contained within a large and complex website (such as that for a university or a government agency), identify the host organization and the relevant program or department before giving the URL for the document itself.

Electronic Copy of a Journal Article, Three to Five Authors, Retrieved from Database

When referencing material obtained by searching an aggregated database, follow the format appropriate to the work retrieved and add a retrieval statement that gives the proper name of the database.

Citing Specific Parts of a Source in Text

To cite a specific part of a source, indicate the page, chapter, figure, table, or equation at the appropriate point in text. Always give page numbers for quotations (see section 8.13 in the APA Publications Manual). Note that the word page is abbreviated but not chapter in such text citations:

Examples of Reference List Citations

Bowman, T., Wiener, D., Reavis, T., & Griswold, D. (2014). PARCC accessibility features and accommodations manual: Guidance for districts and decision-making teams to ensure that PARCC mid-year, performance-based, and end-of-year assessments produce valid results for all students (3rd ed.) (ED561902). Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers [PARCC]. ERIC. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED561902.pdf

Brinkman, S. M. (2023). The impact of Section 504 plans on academic achievement (Publication No. 30638513) [Doctoral dissertation, Concordia University Texas]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. https://www.proquest.com/docview/2878168077

Browder, D. M., & Mims, P. J. (in press). Using instruction that works: Evidence-based practices. In D. M. Browder, F. Spooner, G. R. Courtade, & contributors, Teaching students with moderate and severe disabilities (2nd ed.). Guilford Publications.

Carter, E., Austin, D., & Trainor, A. (2012). Predictors of postschool employment outcomes for young adults with severe disabilities. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 23(1), 50-63.

Cawthon, S., Leppo, R., Carr, T., & Kopriva, R. (2013). Toward accessible assessments: The promises and limitations of test item adaptations for students with disabilities and English language learners. Educational Assessment, 18(2), 73–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/10627197.2013.789294

Goldstone, L., Lazarus, S. S., Hendrickson, K., Rogers, C. M., & Hinkle, A. R. (2022). Large print: Research (NCEO Accommodations Toolkit #20a). National Center on Educational Outcomes. https://publications.ici.umn.edu/nceo/accommodations-toolkit/large-print-research

Huynh, R., Midyett, C., Quan, D., Thurlow, M. L., & Lazarus, S. S. (2022). The formative assessment practices landscape for students with disabilities: An analysis of state definitions and practices, 2021 (NCEO Report 435). National Center on Educational Outcomes. https://nceo.umn.edu/docs/OnlinePubs/NCEOReport435.pdf

Kangas, S. E. N. (2018). Why working apart doesn’t work at all: Special education and English learner teacher collaborations. Intervention in School and Clinic, 54(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451218762469

Quenemoen, R. F. (2009). The long and winding road of alternate assessments: Where we started, where we are now, and the road ahead. In W. D. Shafer & R. W. Lissitz (Eds.), Alternate assessments based on alternate achievement standards: Policy, practice, and potential (pp. 127–153). Paul H. Brookes.

Saunders, A., Wakeman, S., Reyes, E., Thurlow, M., & Vandercook, T. (2020). Instructional practices for students with the most significant cognitive disabilities in inclusive settings: A review of the literature (TIES Center Report #104). TIES Center. https://files.tiescenter.org/files/gMyqghMkcj/ties-center-report-104

General NCEO Website Information

When referring readers or presentation audiences to the NCEO website, use the following: www.nceo.info.

If you have items you would like posted to the NCEO website, email Michael Moore at moore031@umn.edu. Content such as new webpages will require working with the IT department and will take some time. If anyone needs to reach IT directly, a ticket can be sent to: iciwebhelp@umn.edu.

Required Statements and Logos for NCEO and Other Project Products

Most funding agencies require that a funding statement and disclaimer be on each project product. Two example statements are provided here.

NCEO Project funding statement and disclaimer:

TIES Center funding statement and disclaimer:

If your product is supported by funds other than NCEO’s, it is the PI's responsibility to make certain that the correct cooperative agreement or grant award number, and any other language required by that grant, is included with all print and online materials the grant funds. Likewise, the PI needs to make sure a logo from the additional funder is used.

The University of Minnesota also requires that the Equal Opportunity (EO) Statement be displayed as well as a notice that the publication can be available in alternate formats upon request for persons with disabilities. Below is the standard language NCEO uses:

When there are space limitations, we are permitted to use the short form of the EO statement:

The University of Minnesota also requires us to display the following:

NCEO also must acknowledge its affiliation with the Institute on Communication on its publications:

NCEO Logo

NCEO's logo must be clearly used on all publications supported by NCEO funds. A large library of NCEO logos can be found in ICI's Intranet . This library includes variations with NCEO's logo stacked with the UMN/ICI wordmarks.

Example of standard NCEO logo

ICI, UMN, and OSEP Logos and Wordmarks

Project requirements determine which logos must be displayed on products. Regardless of the project, the Institute on Community Integration wordmark needs to be included (see below). We use a wordmark that includes both UMN and ICI. For all logo variations, ICI's Intranet page offers a multitude of possibilities.

For OSEP-funded projects, the "IDEAs that Work" logo (see below) should be displayed. It is the Project PI's responsibility to know all logos that are required to be used.

For more on University of Minnesota requirements and resources, see University of Minnesota resources for graphics and other standards .

Delivering Your Report for Production

When submitting your report or other publication for production, the work must be finished. Any other changes after this time should only be typos or correcting formatting errors. As part of this process, it is recommend that you do a final review of both your text and reference citations against the APA Publication Manual.

NCEO Publications Cycle

Below is an approximate timeline for the publications cycle. This is a best-case scenario assuming there is nothing ahead of your publication. You should plan the completion of your publications with sufficient time to complete this cycle and expect 10 to 12 weeks from the time the project director receives a final draft to an online publication.

While writing your publication, you can use NCEO's Editing Checklist as a guide. The Checklist links to this Style Guidelines publication as well as to other resources.

NCEO currently is not producing printed copies of publications. If printed copies are required, arrangements can be made if budgeting has been preapproved for that. Such a request needs to be made prior to the publication process and an additional 10 working days (two weeks) will need to be added to the schedule for printing. PDFs are no longer being made for publications but they can be produced in the Web Publications system by "saving as PDF."

Style Resources

The manual that should be at your side at all times when preparing a report is the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Seventh Edition, also known as the APA Publication Manual.

APA also has available Displaying Your Findings: A Practical Guide for Creating Figures, Posters, and Presentations (Sixth Edition), a comprehensive and accessible resource for creating effective visual materials. The authors clarify APA style for visual presentation and “how to” aspects of presenting conference posters and presentations.

APA also provides articles, tutorials, and examples on its APA Style website .

If the above manuals do not answer your questions, or do not provide sufficient examples, the final word in all things publishing is the Chicago Manual of Style (University of Chicago Press).

Accessibility Resource and the Digital Accessibility Badging Program

The University of Minnesota's Accessible U website , with resources on cultivating inclusion in digital spaces. Many of the articles referenced in the NCEO Style Guide are found on this website under the tab, Getting Started>Learn the 7 Core Accessibility Skills.

It is strongly recommended that NCEO staff take the the Digital Accessibility Badging Program courses for the software that they use such as the courses for Documents and Slide Presentations . All staff are expected to follow Title II standards for accessibility with their documents and presentations. These standards are expected for any publishing and presenting at conferences.

Presentations

APA Tips for Presentations

(This information was adapted from APA’s, Displaying Your Findings: A Practical Guide for Creating Figures, Posters, and Presentations.)

Presentation software (e.g., PowerPoint) is often used for conference presentations. This software allows the speaker to de sign multiple screens for the presentation and to create a seamless presentation that includes text, figures, and video.

Presentations on a computer are not without problems. Obviously, they require a computer, which is sometimes provided by conference organizers but often must be brought by the presenter, and also a projector to project the presentation from the computer screen to a larger screen. There are a number of ways this technology can fail. For instance, there can be problems connecting the computer to the projector, problems adjusting the colors created by the projector, and problems if the presentation is created on a Macintosh computer and then presented using a a PC. These problems can usually be fixed but take up valuable presentation time.

The following tips can help presenters maximize the effectiveness of their presentation:

• Practice setting up the computer and projector.
• Use sound effects and animation only to enhance a particular point in the talk.
• If possible, use a remote mouse. This will allow you to move away from the computer while speaking.
• Make sure the room is dark enough for the projected computer screen to be visible.
• Practice going back to a particular screen in the presentation sequence. An audience member may ask a question that requires you to show a screen from the middle of the presentation. Also, during the presentation you might accidentally advance the screens and wish to back up.
• Make sure that the presentation is set to advance screens with a mouse click. Presetting a time (duration) for each screen makes the presentation hands free but also requires the presenter to stick to a very strict schedule for the presentation.

General Presentations Guidelines

Format Color

The use of color on slides or overheads can enhance a presentation. Strong, bright colors should be used, and cluttered back grounds should be avoided. A consistent color theme should be used throughout the presentation. With the exception of photographs, which have many colors, no more than two or three colors should be used per screen, slide, or overhead.

Number of Screens, Slides, or Overheads in a Presentation

Many people find that their talk is well timed if they budget one screen, slide, or overhead for every one to three minutes of talk time. Each should address only one main point or issue.

Fonts

If the slides are projected onto a standard screen and the room is not too large, a font of at least 24 points should suffice for text (the American Printing House for the Blind recommends 28 points for text when possible). The font style and color should be consistent across all slides. Standard capitalization rules should be followed; text in all capital letters is difficult to read. Italics rather than bold or underlining is best to highlight points. A single style for bullet lists should be used throughout the presentation.

Text

The text on slides should be as concise as possible. The text should usually take the form of points rather than paragraphs. The text should reinforce, but not match, what the speaker is saying.

Checklist for Effective Slides

Font type, size, and color are consistent across slides.

• Text is large enough to be read from a distance (headings should be at least 32 points).
• There are no more than 12 lines of text per screen.
• Text is clearly organized (e.g., using bullets or numbering).
• Text is limited to that which is absolutely necessary.
• One main idea or topic is on each slide.
• Color scheme (if any) is consistent.
• Color combinations are carefully considered, especially for people who are color blind.

Resources for Making Good Presentations

Power up your PowerPoint , seven research-backed tips for effective presentations (American Psychological Association)

How to Make a PowerPoint Presentation Meet the APA Format (The Pen & The Pad)

How to Make Events Accessible , a checklist for meetings, conferences, training, and presentations that are remote/virtual, in-person, or hybrid (W3C Web Accessibility Initiative)

NCEO Colors

Below is NCEO's color palette to be used for the NCEO Project and NCEO overall. You can use the rgb or hex codes to replicate the same colors in your presentations, etc. Other projects use different color palettes.

Appendix: Summary of Changes and Highlights in the 7th Edition of the APA Publication Manual

In-text Citations

All in-text citations of 3 or more authors uses et al. There are a few exceptions, but this is the general rule. 8.17

Examples of In-text Citation Styles:

For more on In-text citations, 8.10-8.22

Reference lists:

Book references omit publisher location. This makes it easier since you do not need to worry about whether the book was printed in New York or Indianapolis or anywhere else. Standardization on use of DOIs and URLs. This includes always include a DOI for works that have a DOI, regardless of whether you used the online version or the print version. If an online work has both a DOI and a URL, include only the DOI. If an online work has a URL but no DOI, include the URL. The manual provides extensive directions on how to do so. 9.34-9.36

Use hyperlinks for DOIs as well as for URLs (in reference list). Be consistent in the formatting of DOI numbers. Use of shortened DOIs and URLs are accepted. Instructions are included about how to obtain short URLs. 9.36 Number of authors to include in reference list—up to 20—are listed before use of ellipsis. If there are 21 or more authors, include the first 19 authors’ names, insert an ellipsis (but not ampersand), and then add the final author’s name. 9.8

Journal references always include the issue number for all periodicals that have issue numbers. This simplifies needing to know whether a journal is paginated by volume or issue. Just always include it. 9.25

The retrieval date is not required for a “stable” or archived source. Use a retrieval date for sources that can be updated or inherently designed to change (e.g., Twitter profile, Facebook page, map generated by Google Maps, work on a website that updates frequently). Format as:

Retrieved October 11, 2020, from https://xxxx

See 9.16 and Chapter 10, examples 14, 100, and 112.

Note: In the section of Reference Examples, APA 7 not only gives examples for Reference List citations, but with each example they also provide parenthetical and narrative citation examples for each one. Chapter 10

Fonts:

More fonts are considered accessible. Options include: 11 point Calibri, 11 point Arial, 10 point Lucinda Sans Unicode, 12 point Times New Roman, 11 point Georgia, or 10 point Computer Modern. 2.19

Inclusivity:

Use of singular “they” is endorsed. This is used for individuals who prefer this pronoun, as well as for instances when the gender identity of the person being written about is unknown. 4.18

General guidelines for reducing bias in writing. 5.1-5.10

Writing mechanics:

Chapter 6, “Mechanics of Style” offers more guidance on style mechanics, including capitalization, abbreviations, use of numbers. For example, use one space after a period (6.1), and guidance for when to use a period in abbreviations and when not to. 6.2

Chapter 4, “Writing Style and Grammar” offers guidance that includes verb tenses, use of voice, mood, subject and verb agreement. 4.12-4.15

Guidance on common mistakes including that/which (4.21); who/whom (4.20); who/that (4.19).

Good section on plagiarism, including “self-plagiarism.” 8.2-8.3

Examples of Reference list citations:

Browder, D. M., & Mims, P. J. (in press). Using instruction that works: Evidence-based practices. In D. M. Browder, F. Spooner, G. R. Courtade, & contributors, Teaching students with moderate and severe disabilities (2nd ed.). Guilford Publications.

Brown, J. E., & Sanford, A. (2011). RTI for English language learners: Appropriately using screening and progress monitoring tools to improve instructional outcomes. National Center on Response to Intervention. https://rti4success.org/sites/default/files/rtiforells.pdf

Carter, E., Austin, D., & Trainor, A. (2012). Predictors of postschool employment outcomes for young adults with severe disabilities. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 23(1), 50-63.

Cawthon, S., Leppo, R., Carr, T., & Kopriva, R. (2013). Toward accessible assessments: The promises and limitations of test item adaptations for students with disabilities and English language learners. Educational Assessment, 18(2), 73–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/10627197.2013.789294

IRIS Center. (2019). Definition: Multi-tiered system of support. https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/dbi1/cresource/q1/p01/mtss

Kangas, S. E. N. (2018). Why working apart doesn’t work at all: Special education and English learner teacher collaborations. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451218762469

National Center on Educational Outcomes. (2016). Principles and characteristics of inclusive assessment systems in a changing assessment landscape (NCEO Report 400). https://nceo.umn.edu/docs/OnlinePubs/Report400/NCEOReport400.pdf

Saunders, A., Wakeman, S., Reyes, E., Thurlow, M., & Vandercook, T. (2020). Instructional practices for students with the most significant cognitive disabilities in inclusive settings: A review of the literature. TIES Center.

All rights reserved. Any or all portions of this document may be reproduced without prior permission, provided the source is cited as:

National Center on Educational Outcomes. (2025). NCEO style guidelines: A reference tool for writing reports, APA style, and NCEO publication specifications.

The Center is supported through a Cooperative Agreement (#H326G210002) with the Research to Practice Division, Office of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education. The Center is affiliated with the Institute on Community Integration at the College of Education and Human Development, University of Minnesota. Consistent with EDGAR §75.62, the contents of this report were developed under the Cooperative Agreement from the U.S. Department of Education, but do not necessarily represent the policy or opinions of the U.S. Department of Education or Offices within it. Readers should not assume endorsement by the federal government. Project Officer: Kristen Rhoads

In collaboration with:

NCEO Core Staff

Andrew R. Hinkle, Co-Director

Kristi K. Liu, Co-Director

Jessica Bowman

Gail Ghere

Linda Goldstone

Michael L. Moore

Darrell Peterson

Mari Quanbeck

Virginia A. Ressa

Kathy Strunk

Yi-Chen Wu

National Center on Educational Outcomes

University of Minnesota

2025 East River Parkway, Room 1-330

Minneapolis, MN 55414

Phone 612/626-1530

http://www.nceo.info

The University of Minnesota shall provide equal access to and opportunity in its programs, facilities, and employment without regard to race, color, creed, religion, national origin, gender, age, marital status, disability, public assistance status, veteran status, sexual orientation, gender identity, or gender expression.

This document is available in alternative formats upon request. Direct requests to nceo@umn.edu.

NCEO is an affiliated center of the Institute on Community Integration