Research-Based Interventions that Work: Improving Retention and Graduation Rates for College Students with Disabilities

Emily Unholz-Bowden, Ph.D., Roqayah Ajaj, Ph.D., Krista Stokes, B.S., Yue Wu, Ph.D., Brian Abery, Ph.D., and Renáta Ticha՜, Ph.D., University of Minnesota

Logos. AHEAD, Association on Higher Education and Disability. NCCSD, National Center for College Students with Disabilities. Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota.

Woman with dark shoulder length hair wearing a dark jacket, black and white animal print top, and dark pink pants. She is standing in front of a research poster that is attached to a large black board.

Author Emily Unholz-Bowden standing with the printed poster at 2023 AHEAD conference in Portland, Oregon.

African American female student with long braids using a wheelchair smiling at the camera. She is wearing a dark blue graduation gown and is holding her mortar board in her lap.

Note: This is the expanded and accessible version of a poster session presented at the 2023 AHEAD conference.

Purpose and Aims

In 2020, only 20% of individuals 25-34 years of age with a disability received a bachelor's degree or higher compared to 41% of individuals without a disability (Research and Training Center on Disability Statistics and Demographics, 2023).
Despite various supports provided in colleges and universities, little is known about their effectiveness for promoting retention and graduation of college students with disabilities.
We are conducting a scoping review to answer the following research questions:
- What interventions, programs, accommodations, and services currently exist in the empirical literature to promote academic achievement of students with disabilities in higher education?
- In what type of institutions are these supports being empirically explored?
- What are the demographics of the population samples, including race/ethnicity, age, sex, gender, and disability?
- What outcomes related to academic achievement and social/mental well-being are being measured?
- What evidence base exists to support the use of currently existing supports?

Method

We are using Tinto’s model of integration (Tinto, 1973) to conceptualize essential outcomes related to academic achievement:

Recruitment (e.g., applying for college)
Admission (being admitted into a college program)
Academic skills (e.g., study skills, reading comprehension, writing skills, requesting accommodations, math fluency)
Academic success (e.g., GPA, attendance, academic standing, earned credits)
Graduation (e.g., associate degree, bachelor's degree, master's degree, Ph.D., certification)

This visual is a PRISMA flow diagram displaying the steps of the scoping review. Starting at the top of the chart, the first step is identification. The number of studies identified from databases and registers and published from twenty-fifteen to twenty- twenty two is four thousand ninety seven. The number of references removed as duplicates was two hundred eighteen. The next step in the middle of the chart is screening. The number of studies screened for titles and abstracts was three thousand eight hundred seventy nine. Of those studies, three thousand two hundred thirty seven were excluded. Studies sought for retrieval and assessed for eligibility based on full text was six hundred thirty three. Of those studies, four hundred fifty eight were excluded. Finally, at the bottom of the chart, the number of studies included in the review is one hundred seventy five. For the purpose of this poster, thirty-four studies including academic outcomes published from twenty-nineteen to twenty-twenty two were included for analysis of demographics, settings, tested supports, and measured outcomes. Of those studies, ten measuring specifically academic success and graduation as outcomes were included for analysis of efficacy of supports.

Results

Preliminary Results Across Studies Including Academic Outcomes from 2019-2022 (n = 34):

Participant Demographics

The majority of studies include participants who are White, followed by Black or African American, and Asian.
The majority of studies included participants who are 17-24 years of age.
Male and female participants are nearly equally represented across studies.
LGBTQIA+ status was included in only 2.94% (n = 1) of studies.
The gender (man, woman, non-binary) of participants was not identified in any of the studies.

Demographic	Percentage across studies (n = 34)
Race/Ethnicity
White (Non-Hispanic)	73.53%
Black or African American	41.18%
Asian (Hmong, Asian Indian, Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, Other)	29.41%
Hispanic/Latino (Mexican-American, Chicano, Puerto Rican, Cuban, or Other Hispanic)	23.53%
Multiracial	20.59%
American Indian or Alaska Native	11.76%
Pacific Islander (Native Hawaiian, Guamanian, Chamorro, Samoan, or Other)	8.82%
Middle East/North Africa (MENA) (Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen)	2.94%
Not provided	26.47%

Target Populations

The majority of studies included college students with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) and Autism, specific learning disabilities (SLD), and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).
Across the studies targeting academic outcomes, students with IDD, ADHD, and SDL are highly represented compared to self-reported prevalence from a survey disseminated across 51 institution and 33,774 respondents in higher education. Students with mental health conditions are less represented in the literature compared to self-reported prevalence in higher education (American College Health Association, 2022).

This visual is a bar graph depicting a comparison of the representation of disability types in the empirical literature and prevalence in higher education. The x-axis is includes types of disability categories and the y-axis is labeled "prevalence". There are two sets of bars. One represents the percentage of the study sample (thirty-four) that included students experiencing disabilities indicated in the x-axis. The other represents the percentage of college students included in a survey by the American College Health Association measuring prevalence of students with disabilities in higher education. Across the thirty-four studies testing the effects of supports on academic outcomes, sixty-two percent of them included participants with intellectual and developmental disabilities, forty-four percent with attention deficit / hyperactivity disorder, thirty-five percent with a specific learning disability, twenty-nine percent with a mental health condition, twenty-four percent with a physical disability, fifteen percent with a hearing impairment, nine percent with traumatic or acquired brain injury, six percent with a visual impairment, six percent with a chronic illness, and six percent with post -traumatic stress disorder. In contrast, according to the survey conducted by the American College Health Association, students with intellectual and developmental disabilities represent ten percent of the population in higher education, students with attention deficit / hyperactivity disorder represent fifteen percent, students with a specific learning disability represent five percent, students with a mental health condition represent forty-three percent, students with a physical disability represent one percent, students with a hearing impairment represent two percent, students with a traumatic or acquired brain injury represent one percent, students with a visual impairment represent four percent, and students with post-traumatic stress disorder represent seven percent. Data on prevalence of chronic illness in higher education were not available for accurate comparison.

Note. The bar graph depicts a comparison of the representation of students with disabilities in the empirical literature and prevalence in higher education. The blue bars represent the percentage of the study sample (n = 34) that included students experiencing disabilities indicated in the x-axis. The orange bars represent the percentage of college students with disabilities based on a survey by the American College Health Association . Students with mental health conditions in higher education primarily include depression and anxiety, but also include disabilities separated within the bar graph, including ADHD, ASD, PTSD, and TBI. Data on prevalence of chronic illness in higher education were not available for accurate comparison.

Settings

The majority of studies take place within public, 4-year universities, some of which house specialized inclusive or separate post-secondary education programs.

Setting	Percentage
4-year university	64.71%
An inclusive post-secondary education program within a 2 or 4-year university	20.59%
A separated post-secondary education program within a 2 or 4-year university	8.82%
2-year university	8.82%
Community college	2.94%

Types of Supports and Academic Outcomes

The majority of studies tested the effects of:
- Mentoring, coaching, tutoring, and advising
- Neuro-, cognitive, and behavior-based therapies
- Skill building / acquisition interventions
- Disability / DRC services, accommodations, and assistive technology
These supports were tested for effectiveness on various academic outcomes, primarily:
- academic skills
- academic success
- graduation
- recruitment

Types of supports tested	Percentage of studies (n = 34)
Mentoring, coaching, tutoring, and advising (e.g., peer mentoring, academic coaching, the Learning Academy).	26.47%
Neuro-, cognitive, and behavior-based therapies (e.g., Cognitive behavior therapy, self-monitoring, neurofeedback training, behavioral activation).	23.53%
Skill building / acquisition interventions (e.g., Math, reading, writing, and executive functioning interventions).	14.71%
Disability / DRC services, accommodations, and assistive technology (e.g., daily planner, scheduling application, New Start for Student Veterans).	11.76%
Employment preparation interventions (e.g., remote audio coaching, video-based instruction).	11.76%
Inclusion program, activities, and organizations (e.g., inclusive post-secondary education programs for students with IDD).	2.94%
Multiple	8.82%

This visual is a pie chart depicting academic outcomes measured across thirty-four studies published from twenty-nineteen to twenty-twenty two. Across those studies, forty-four percent measured academic skills, such as study skills, reading comprehension, writing skills, requesting accommodations, and math fluency. Thirty-two percent of studies measured academic success, including GPA, academic standing, and earned credits. Twenty-four percent of studies measured employment preparation, such as resumé building and interviewing. Six percent of studies measured graduation, defined as obtainment of a degree such as an associate degree, bachelor's degree, or master's degree. Lastly, three percent of studies measured recruitment, defined as applying for college.

Efficacy of Supports

We analyzed the results of studies from 2019-2022 specifically testing the effects of supports on academic success (i.e., GPA, academic standing, earned credits, continued enrollment) and graduation.
- Of the 10 studies, tested supports included:
  - (1) mentoring, coaching, tutoring, and advising interventions (i.e., peer mentoring, faculty mentoring, academic advisement)
  - (2) disability/DRC services or universally available supports
  - (3) cognitive behavior therapy (CBT)
  - Transition program including peer mentoring, employment skills intervention, and internships
- Based on the small number studies included in this analysis, there are mixed results on the effectiveness of these supports on academic success and graduation.

Title	Disability	Support Type	Outcomes	Results
Effect of Accessing Supports on Higher Education Persistence of Students with Disabilities	ADHD, IDD, LD, Mental health condition	Disability resource services; Universally available supports (e.g., tutoring, writing, study centers)	Continued enrollment; Graduation	Mixed
Impact of Disability Services on Academic Achievement among College Students with Disabilities	ADHD, LD, Mental health condition, Physical disability, Sensory impairment	Disability resource services	GPA	Positive
Support Receipt: Effect on Postsecondary Success of Students with Learning Disabilities	SLD	Disability resource services; Universally available supports	Continued enrollment; Graduation	Positive for general supports (not DRC specific)
Determining Academic Success in Students with Disabilities in Higher Education	Not specified	Disability resource services	GPA	Not significant
Supported Education among Student Veterans: Impact on Self-Advocacy Skills and Academic Performance	ADHD, Mental health condition, Physical disability, PTSD, TBI/ABI	Disability resource services; Advising	GPA	Not significant
Aided by Extant Data: The Effect of Peer Mentoring on Achievement for College Students with Disabilities	ADHD, IDD, LD	Peer mentoring (at least 1 year, up to 2 years)	Academic standing; GPA	Not significant
Outcomes of a Peer Mentoring Program for University Students with Disabilities	ADHD, chronic illness, IDD, Mental health condition	Peer mentoring (1 semester)	Continued enrollment; Earned credits; GPA	Not significant
Characteristics contributing to graduation for university students with dsm-5 diagnoses after completion of a mentoring program	ADHD, IDD, LD, Mental health condition, TBI	Peer mentoring (1 year)	GPA	Positive
Postsecondary Education and Employment for Youth with Autism: Preliminary Results from a Customized Transition Program	IDD	Transition program with peer mentoring, employment skills intervention, and internship	Enrollment; Continued enrollment; Graduation	Positive
An RCT of a CBT Intervention for Emerging Adults with ADHD Attending College: Functional Outcomes	ADHD	Cognitive behavior therapy; Faculty mentoring	GPA; Earned credits	Not significant

Implications for Future Research

Expand target populations to include greater diversity (e.g., race/ethnicity, disability) to better understand generalization effects
Collect gender and LGBTQIA+ status as part of participant demographic information
Conduct more efficacy research on long-standing university supports such as peer mentoring and DRC services
Investigate specific program/service components that contribute to positive outcomes
Conduct longitudinal studies testing long-term effects of supports on academic achievement (including graduation) throughout student enrollment in higher education

References

American College Health Association (2022). National college health assessment III: Fall 2022 reference group executive summary. American College Health Association. https://www.acha.org/documents/ncha/NCHA-III_FALL_2022_REFERENCE_GROUP_EXECUTIVE_SUMMARY.pdf

Chiu, Y.-C. J., Chang, H.-Y. V., Johnston, A., Nascimento, M., Herbert, J. T., & Niu, X. M. (2019). Impact of disability services on academic achievement among college students with disabilities. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability (Print), 32, 227–.

De Los Santos, S. B., Kupczynski, L., & Mundy, M.-A. (2019). Determining academic success in students with disabilities in higher education. International Journal of Higher Education, 8, 16–38. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v8n2p16

Eddy, L. D., Anastopoulos, A. D., Dvorsky, M. R., Silvia, P. J., Labban, J. D., & Langberg, J. M. (2021). An RCT of a CBT intervention for emerging adults with ADHD attending college: Functional outcomes. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 50, 844–857. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2020.1867989

Hillier, A., Goldstein, J., Tornatore, L., Byrne, E., & Johnson, H. M. (2019) Outcomes of a peer mentoring program for university students with disabilities, Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 27, 487-508. https://doi.org/10.1080/13611267.2019.1675850

Houtenville, A., Bach. S., & Paul., S. (2023). Annual report of people with disabilities in America. University of New Hampshire, Institute on Disability. https://disabilitycompendium.org/sites/default/files/user-uploads/Accessible-Annual%20Report%20---%202023%20---%20Accessible.pdf

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Newman, L. A., Madaus, J. W., Lalor, A. R., & Javitz, H. S. (2019). Support receipt: Effect on postsecondary success of students with learning disabilities. Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 42, 6–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/2165143418811288

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Schindler, V. P. & Boney, J. D. (2022) Characteristics contributing to graduation for university students with DSM-5 diagnoses after completion of a mentoring program, Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 30, 124-141. https://doi.org/10.1080/13611267.2022.2031085

Smith, T. J., Berkman, K., Richmond, S., Fitzpatrick, M., & Dillahunt-Aspillaga, C. J. (2019). Postsecondary education and employment for youth with autism: Preliminary results from a customized transition program. Rehabilitation Research, Policy & Education, 33, 65–75. https://doi.org/10.1891/2168-6653.33.1.65

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This presentation was funded by the Office of Postsecondary Education, award number: P116D210002.

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