This Is Who We Are and What We Do: A Case Study of Two Districts Exemplifying Inclusivity

Introduction

Inequitable outcomes for students with disabilities reflect deep injustices within our education system and, indeed, within society more broadly. According to the most recent data from the National Longitudinal Transition Study (Sanford et al., 2011; Wagner et al., 2006) and National Center for Education Statistics (2022), students with disabilities are less likely than their peers without disabilities to graduate from high school and enroll in and complete postsecondary education at 4-year colleges (see Table 1). This is especially the case for students with significant cognitive disabilities. “Significant cognitive disability” is not a specific category identified in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004). Instead, it reflects a population of students with at least one other existing IDEA identification (e.g., intellectual disability, autism, multiple disabilities) whose disability significantly affects their intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior. Students with significant cognitive disabilities present complex needs and often require intensive support to access the general education curriculum.

Table 1. Secondary and Postsecondary Education Outcomes for Youth With and Without Disabilities

Postsecondary outcomes are especially dire for students with significant cognitive disabilities. For example, they are often the students least likely to find postsecondary employment (Bush & Tasse, 2017), with estimates of unemployment rates as high as 70-80% (Smith et al., 2019). Furthermore, those with significant cognitive disabilities also have limited opportunities to live independently and develop meaningful relationships (Lee & Morningstar, 2019).

These deleterious outcomes mandate immediate action. Nevertheless, even when districts recognize that they must act, it is not necessarily clear what actions they should take or how to systematize those actions for the benefit of all students. Fortunately, ongoing research and policy–in the United States and elsewhere–have shown that an inclusive educational approach improves outcomes for all students (e.g., Agran et al., 2018; Carter & Hughes, 2006). Despite this, districts do not always view inclusive education as a feasible or effective option.

To correct these misconceptions, this study investigated districts that are positive outliers, that is, districts that have implemented inclusive education in a particularly robust and effective way. Specifically, we sought to understand what makes inclusive education successful in such districts. Two questions guided the research:

1. What are the experiences and viewpoints of district personnel and community members in exemplary districts?
2. How do district personnel and community members in exemplar districts perceive the community’s influence on inclusive education for students with significant cognitive disabilities?

Extensive research in two exemplar districts revealed that implementing an inclusive model of education for students with significant cognitive disabilities is not only feasible but results in positive outcomes for all students, confirming existing research on the subject. The research further revealed that strong system-level practices and policies made an inclusive approach successful, but that the specific policies and practices differed somewhat across districts as they were grounded in their particular context. The particularity of context points to another key finding: that attentiveness to the community–in particular, enacting an inclusive model with community buy-in–proved essential in each district’s experience.

Literature Review: The Challenge of Inclusive Education

Providing an inclusive education to students with disabilities is a legal mandate of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004), a philosophical ideal held by many educators, and a moral imperative championed by social justice advocates. The Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO, 2020) defines inclusive education as “a schoolwide culture and practice of valuing each student as a learner across general education classrooms, rather than a particular program or place.” They go on to describe that inclusive education provides equitable access to the general education curriculum as well as the personnel, resources, supports, and interventions necessary for each student’s success.

Not only is inclusion for students with disabilities a legal mandate, but it is also the approach that works best for all students, whether or not they have disabilities (e.g., Agran et al., 2018; Carter & Hughes, 2006; Kalambouka et al., 2007; Ruijs & Peetsma, 2009). Inclusion in the general education curriculum, furthermore, improves outcomes for students with disabilities, regardless of their disability type (see, e.g., Blackorby et al., 2007; Hehir et al., 2012; Marder et al., 2003; Newman et al., 2003; Wagner et al., 2005).

Effective inclusion, however, involves much more than merely placing students with disabilities in general education classrooms. For inclusion to be successful, districts must provide supports, resources, personnel, structures, and so on. Adopting an inclusive approach to education is the work of systems change (see, e.g., Ryndak et al., 2007; Ward et al., 2022). Perhaps this explains why students with significant cognitive disabilities only receive minimal opportunities to access general education environments and the general education curriculum. Compared to all students with disabilities, where 63% spend at least 80% of their day in general education settings, only 3% of students with significant cognitive disabilities are in the general education environment for at least 80% of the day (Vandercook et al., 2018/19). Even when students with significant disabilities are offered opportunities to learn alongside their peers without disabilities, this access is often limited to a few classes a day and students’ participation in those classes remains limited.

Although there is a robust and continually-growing body of research on inclusive practices, districts still struggle to implement inclusive educational models. Students with disabilities cannot benefit from evidence-based practices and strategies they do not receive. And, as Boren and Balas (2000) found, less than 50% of evidence-based interventions make it to scale.

Fostering Inclusive Schooling Across a System

Systems (or organizational) change involves moving all parts of the system. When thinking about structural change, orienting to the “good” can be helpful (Lightfoot, 1983). Fullan and collaborators’ recent work on systems thinking has examined the potential for change through the lens of “goodness,” or from the vantage point that–through the right mechanisms–“goodness” can be achieved within a system (see, e.g., Azorin & Fullan, 2022; Campbell et al., 2021; Fullan, 2020; Fullan & Edwards, 2022). Fullan’s (2020) observations about the changing nature of effective leadership, in response to the societal and learning demands of the 21st century, highlight four actions for leaders: (a) becoming an expert in the context; (b) intentionally involving multiple stakeholders in complex problem solving; (c) establishing internal accountability that realizes individual and collective efficacy; and (d) networking with other school systems and educational intermediaries.

Understanding context and, in particular, involving stakeholders from across the spectrum prove especially important. Including voices from outside the school district structure, families for example (LaRocque et al., 2011) is as important as building teams that incorporate many voices from within the system (see, e.g., Bryk et al, 2015; Fullan, 2010; Mintrom & Vergari, 1996). Together, these might constitute a community-centric approach to systems change. This community-centric approach, along with the use of strong leadership (Roberts et al., 2018) and collaborative teams (Hunt et al., 2003; Sharpe & Hawes, 2003), emerged in both cases under study.

Educational researchers have observed that, while reforms often benefit from early momentum, the system must remain dynamic if they are to take hold (Cuban, 1992; Fullan, 2005; Mehta, 2013; Ravitch, 2013). Institutionalizing reforms requires a system that is open to the intake of new personnel, resistant to changes from retirements and resignations, and able to sustain the work when met with significant internal or external shocks (e.g. budget cuts, top-down mandates, societal crises).

Having implemented an inclusive educational model, districts can embrace a range of inclusive practices that help to achieve institutionalization. Evidence-based practices observed in districts using an inclusive model include: using accommodations and modifications to support student learning; adapting the general education curriculum; providing appropriate supports that are individualized to student needs; utilizing collaborative teaming practices; effective building leadership; and, strong family involvement (e.g., Downing & Peckham-Hardin, 2007; McDaid et al., 2018/19). Moreover, educational experiences that promote high expectations using differentiated and intensive instruction are some of the key factors that influence postsecondary outcomes for individuals with significant cognitive disabilities (Mazzoti et al., 2016).

Two key inclusive practices are the use of paraeducators and peer mentors to provide targeted support. The United States (US) Department of Education (2018) has acknowledged the critical role paraeducators play in the implementation of inclusive schooling, as across the nation many students with disabilities receive support from paraeducators. However, there is a growing concern that the field over-relies on paraeducators to deliver instruction to students with significant cognitive disabilities (e.g., Giangreco & Broer, 2005; Kurth et al., 2016). Schools are hiring increasing numbers of paraeducators, with some data showing paraeducators outnumber licensed educators (US Department of Education, 2018). This is problematic because most paraeducators have not received formal training to teach students with disabilities. Although paraeducators can increase opportunities for students with disabilities in inclusive education settings, potential pitfalls can emerge if their roles and responsibilities are not clear.

An alternative approach to using paraeducators as a way to promote inclusive opportunities is through peer support (Carter et al., 2015). Peer supports include using one or more peers to provide academic and social support to classmates with disabilities (Carter et al., 2009). This allows other adults, such as paraeducators, to fade out their support and take on more of a facilitator role in the process (Carter et al., 2015). Outcomes for students with disabilities who spend time receiving peer support have been positive, including a decrease in time spent with paraeducators, an increase in academic engagement, an increase in access to social interactions, and an increase in initiating or developing peer relationships (Brock & Carter, 2015; Carter et al., 2015, Jimenez et al., 2012).

With the mounting evidence of the benefits of inclusive education and the limited success of districts in implementing an inclusive approach well, we sought to learn from successful districts the systemic actions they take to enhance their effectiveness. This report summarizes the viewpoints and experiences of stakeholders in two districts identified as inclusive exemplars.

Methods

This section of the report describes the methods used to address the research questions that guided the study. It begins with a description of the study’s research team. Then it considers the research design, recruitment of participants, instrumentation, data collection, data analysis, methodological assumptions, and limitations.

Research Team

The research team included four core researchers (the authors of the study) and one additional member who contributed extensively to the work but did not engage in data analysis or writing.[1] All team members are advocates for inclusive education, committed to improving equitable opportunities and outcomes for all children, though our backgrounds vary, spanning the fields of inclusive education, special education, rural education, early childhood education, and history. All team members are early career scholars (i.e., all have obtained their terminal degrees in the last 10 years), and their current positions involve research, evaluation, personnel preparation, and professional development efforts to improve the system of education for all students.

Research Design

This study employed a qualitative case study design with interviews as the primary data collection mechanism. Schools reflect the communities they serve; thus, we sought to understand the broader context in which each district operates. We used in-depth interviews to investigate what inclusive education looks like in each district’s schools and how the wider community experienced the district’s initiatives. The research design allowed for a thorough examination of district personnel at both the building and administrative levels. Also, it included interviews with parents of children with significant cognitive disabilities, school board members, and others.

Recruitment of Participants

We began by identifying districts and charter schools across the United States that could serve as positive examples of inclusion–i.e., districts that had implemented an inclusive educational model with a high degree of fidelity systemwide. To do this, we developed a list of scholars and leaders in the field of education who could potentially recommend exemplary districts. This outreach produced contacts for 214 experts, which the team emailed in October and November 2021. After receiving responses from 55 contacts, the team sent follow-up emails to the remaining 159, which generated another three responses. Of the 58 individuals from whom we received a response, 30 did not have a recommendation, eight recommended another individual to contact or indicated that they had forwarded our message to a colleague, and 20 provided recommendations. This process resulted in a list of 35 potential exemplary school districts and charter schools.

After obtaining IRB approval from the University of Cincinnati in February 2022, we contacted all 35 recommended districts and schools via email. The message explained the research’s purpose and invited each to respond if they were interested in participating or learning more. We received three initial responses and sent follow-up emails to the remaining contacts; this produced three additional responses. Of the six interested districts and schools, two were charter schools and four were public districts. A member of the research team conducted informational interviews with contacts at each to explain the research and clarify participants’ responsibilities. Following each conversation, we emailed a nine-item screening questionnaire to the district and school representatives on the call (see Appendix A). Two public districts returned the questionnaire and we selected both districts for inclusion in the research.

To identify individual participants within districts, the research team relied on the district’s administrators who contacted individuals in each role and solicited their participation. The findings section discusses individual participants in greater detail.

Instrumentation

We employed a semi-structured interview protocol (see Appendix B). The protocol began with a scripted introduction and overview of the research before soliciting the interviewee’s consent to participate. Interviewers asked a series of eight questions related to (a) place-based factors; (b) the district’s broader mission and vision; (c) the district’s organizational synergy; (d) building- and classroom-level practices; and (e) social and peer engagement. For each of these five domains, the protocol included predetermined follow-up questions that the interviewer could ask if relevant. In addition, interviewers asked spontaneous follow-up questions as needed.

Data Collection

Working with a contact from each district, we provided the team’s availability to conduct interviews and they provided names, roles, contact information, and interview dates/times for interviewees who had agreed to participate. The research team then emailed each interviewee the date and time of the interview, a Zoom link, an informed consent document, and the name of their interviewer. In several cases, the proposed time no longer worked and the researchers worked with the interviewees to reschedule.

Four research team members conducted a total of 49 Zoom interviews between April and June 2022. Most interviews lasted between 30 minutes and one hour (with an overall average of 48 minutes). The research team recorded all interviews using Zoom’s inbuilt recording feature. After each interview, the interviewer saved the audio recording to a shared OneDrive folder; all recordings were sent to REV[2] for transcription. Interview transcripts served as the primary data source for analysis.

Data Analysis

Four researchers participated in the data analysis. Beginning in May 2022, the research team met every other week to discuss the progress of data collection, anything noteworthy that arose during interviews, and to hypothesize potential emergent codes. Following the conclusion of data collection in late June 2022, the team transitioned to the analysis phase of its work (and to weekly meetings). Using a process of constant-comparative coding (rooted in grounded theory), four researchers began coding interviews using one researcher’s set of a priori codes based on the interview questions (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Coders began with a core group of five interviews, ensuring diversity across districts and participant roles, and also developed emergent codes during this initial phase. This enabled the team to compile a list of preliminary codes along with operational definitions for them. Team members then independently coded additional interview excerpts, bringing their coded data to team meetings for discussion and further refinement of the codebook. The final codebook contained both inductive (emergent) and deductive (a priori) codes.

Next, the team split the interviews among researchers with each coding an average of three interviews a week until all interview transcripts had been coded. Each week, for reliability purposes, at least one interview was coded by more than one researcher. In total, the research team multiply-coded eight transcripts (i.e., 16%). During weekly meetings, the team selected one of these interviews for discussion to ensure continued reliability and mutual understanding of the codebook. While discussion of reliability led to the establishment of consensus, and thus the modification of code application for instances without initial agreement, the team computed reliability calculations based on the members’ original code selections. Table 2 summarizes each coder’s reliability. These regular meetings also allowed the team to continually refine the codebook and, as codes evolved, team members re-coded former code applications to ensure they remained accurate. Appendix C reports the final set of codes, their definitions, and examples of meaning units within each.

Table 2: Summary of Interviews Coded and Coding Reliability

Having coded all interview transcripts, the team then analyzed the codes to identify broader categories or themes (a process sometimes called axial coding). To do this, team members compiled spreadsheets for each code (with separate sheets for multiply-coded excerpts); these contained all coded excerpts from the dataset organized by district. The research team met twice a week to discuss interpretations of the data and relationships among the categories. This allowed the researchers to develop the following final set of themes, which served as the basis for analysis:

• Districts assume an identity of inclusivity,
• The challenges of systems change,
• Moving the system using community-grounded and systemic approaches,
• The implementation of inclusive practices,
• Perennial and systemic tensions related to inclusive education, and
• Outcomes of inclusive education.

The iterative analysis process allowed the team to clarify, refine, and verify the findings. Investigator and methodological triangulation further ensured validity.

Methodological Assumptions

This study used qualitative interview methods to gather data from a relatively large and diverse sample of participants. The credibility of the data obtained in this study rests on four key methodological assumptions: (1) that district contacts would be able to solicit participation from enough individuals with sufficient knowledge of the district’s efforts related to inclusion, (2) that enough interviews across both districts could be arranged to ensure representative sampling, (3) that interviewees would feel confident enough in the research team’s promise of confidentiality to discuss their experiences openly, and (4) that a qualitative interview study would provide a more accurate understanding of these districts’ approach to inclusion than would be possible with other methods (e.g., surveying).

Credible qualitative research enables individuals external to that research to have confidence in its methodological fidelity and therefore in the veracity of its findings. Dependability, on the other hand, reflects the stability of findings over time, while confirmability describes the extent to which other researchers would obtain the same results if the study were replicated. Finally, transferability describes the extent to which any findings can be translated to other contexts (Korstjens & Moser, 2018). The research team employed several practices to ensure the credibility, dependability, confirmability, and transferability of the findings.

Several types of triangulation helped to establish credibility. Methodological triangulation–that is interviewing participants in diverse roles both within and across districts–strengthened the findings. Investigator triangulation–having four researchers code data and three researchers analyze and interpret the data–further enabled the research team to be sure of its findings. The research team also shared an early draft of the paper’s context and findings sections with each case district, giving them an opportunity to verify the accuracy of the information and interpretations. All feedback provided by the districts was incorporated into the final draft.

The research team established dependability and confirmability by employing a data audit to document each change to the codebook over the two-month data analysis process (see the description of data analysis above). Moreover, 16% of all interviews (or 31% of each coder’s assigned interviews) were coded by more than one researcher. This ensured that the research team reached consensus with acceptable levels of agreement across all data coders (see Table 1). This transparency and validation of data interpretations were also present in our audit trail of the processes we used to analyze and write each theme’s findings.

To ensure the transferability of the findings, the research provided rich descriptions of both school districts and the communities they serve. The team also sought to situate the findings within the particularity of the local context, describing the various aspects of each district that make inclusive education successful in the eyes of the wider community.

Finally, reflexivity is the process of critical reflection that occurs in qualitative research (Korstjens & Moser, 2018). As researchers, we engaged in reflection both individually and as a team. We drew inspiration from each district's commitment to making inclusive education a success. We often reflected on the similarities and differences between the case districts and other districts of which we have knowledge. On multiple occasions, we discussed their rural locales, the rapid rate of growth they have experienced in the last twenty years, and much more. Often, our reflections emphasized each district’s uniqueness and how they reflect the type of districts we hope our children will have the chance to experience.

Limitations

This research occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic and, further, interviews took place at the end of the school year. These circumstances may have influenced the willingness of individuals to participate in the study.

Secondly, several factors contributed to a sample that is potentially less representative than would be ideal. For example, where participant role is concerned, administrators and special educators constituted 78% of the total sample, potentially overemphasizing their perspectives relative to those of general education teachers or parents. Additional research should focus on the perspectives of these underrepresented participant groups to understand inclusive practices more fully. Similarly, of the 49 total interviews, 36 (or 73%) took place in one of the two districts, which raises questions about the transferability of findings. See the Participants and the Dataset subsection of the Findings for more details.

Finally, as with many interview studies, self-reports of lived experience served as the basis for the dataset. This can, among other possibilities, introduce bias in the dataset. This study did not employ a mixed-methods approach (e.g., using ethnographic observations) to mitigate these potential effects.

Context

This study examined two exemplar districts, one suburban and one rural—though these designations do not tell the full story. This section explores the geographic, demographic, and political contexts at play within each. Unless otherwise noted, demographic information comes from the National Center for Education Statistics.[3] See Appendix D for a table summarizing these demographics.

Vail Unified

Vail Unified, in suburban Tucson, Arizona, has a population of 63,405 and serves 13,642 students, of whom 12.4% are identified as having a disability. The district is 68% White and 23% Hispanic or Latino. The median household income is $86,920 with only 4.1% of families having an income at or below the poverty level.

The district has 23 schools and employs 670 teachers (a 20:1 student-to-teacher ratio) and 353 instructional aides. Additionally, the district budget amounts to $9,826 of revenue per student.

These data do not tell the full story, however: as a district, Vail has experienced exponential growth in the last two decades. US decennial census data indicate growth in population from 2,164 people in 2000 to 10,208 in 2010 and 13,604 in 2020 (US Census Bureau). Of note, these numbers refer to the census-designated place of Vail, which is only one town within the larger geographic catchment for Vail Unified School District that also includes parts of Tucson. Nevertheless, according to the district’s own history, enrollment remained paltry until IBM announced the planned development of a new plant in the area. The arrival of IBM fueled the subsequent population boom and also brought other companies and industries to the area (Vail School District, 2022).

While electoral information does not exist for school districts, data for Pima County (in which Vail sits) indicates that the county votes democratic, with both Clinton and Biden winning by double digits in 2016 and 2020, respectively (Arizona Daily Star). Pima County, however, includes Tuscon, which suggests that Vail itself may vote less overwhelmingly democratic that the county as a whole.

Cecil County

In the US, school districts are either independent or dependent. Dependent districts do not have their own governance and are subservient agencies of a larger (municipal, county, state) government. While most US districts are independent, and many states have some combination of each district type, four states plus the District of Columbia exclusively have dependent districts. Maryland is one of these states, where districts are organized by county.

Cecil County, in the northeast corner of Maryland, has a population of 102,552 and serves 14,718 students, of whom 6.3% are identified as having a disability. The district is 85% White and 6% Black. The median household income is $76,887 with 10.4% of families having an income at or below the poverty level. The district has 29 schools and employs 1,118 teachers (a 13:1 student-to-teacher ratio) and 200 aides. Additionally, the district budget amounts to $15,946 of revenue per student.

Of note, Cecil County straddles the Interstate 95 corridor and includes part of US Route 40 as well. While these towns have higher population densities, the county remains primarily rural. Cecil County voted overwhelmingly Republican in both the 2016 and 2020 presidential elections (Maryland State Board of Elections). These voting patterns match participants' descriptions of the conservative viewpoints that influence responses to district policy and initiatives.

Implications for the Findings

Public schools operate within local communities and, according to the national average, nearly half of all district funding comes from the local tax effort (Owing & Kaplan, 2020). This is true of both Vail—where $47,153,000 of the district’s $128,666,000 total revenue comes from local efforts—and Cecil County ($101,842,000 of $244,089,000 total) (NCES). Community capital, that is assets (e.g., financial capital, natural capital, built capital), support the local tax base and the services that the district provides. Yet, top-down education policy has prioritized transitioning graduates to the market economy, giving little regard to the role a graduate might play in the very community that helped fund their schooling (Ravitch, 2010; Theobald, 2009; Tyack, 1974). Notably, the administrations in both Vail and Cecil County are aware of this norm and intentionally disrupt it by designing and maintaining an inclusive approach to education across the districts that focuses on both how schooling can contribute to community life and how the wider community adds capacity to the school district.

The Vail and Cecil County contexts directly impact their ability to implement inclusive education and warrant consideration for other districts that seek to shift to an inclusive model as well. As readers will note in the findings, both districts’ shifts were grounded in the community. Consequently, readers seeking to apply lessons learned from these districts should do so with caution and through a place-based, community-oriented lens.

Findings

This section of the report presents findings related to two key research questions: First, what are the experiences and viewpoints of school personnel and community members in case districts who utilize an inclusive education model particularly well? And second, how do school personnel and community members in case districts perceive the community’s influence on inclusive education for students with significant cognitive disabilities?

The section begins with a summary of the participants and the dataset. Next, it covers key themes that emerged from the data: (1) that districts assume an identity of inclusivity; (2) the challenges of systems change; (3) moving the system using community-grounded and systemic approaches; (4) the implementation of inclusive practices; (5) perennial and systemic tensions related to inclusive education; and (6) the outcomes of inclusive education.

Participants and the Dataset

Forty-nine interviewees participated in this research, 36 from Vail and 13 from Cecil County (see Table 3). The research team interviewed 17 current or retired central office administrators (e.g., superintendents, directors of special education, school psychologist supervisors) and seven building administrators (e.g., principal, assistant principal). Additionally, the team interviewed 15 teachers (pre-kindergarten through high school), 14 of whom were special educators. The team also conducted interviews with three related service providers (e.g., occupational therapists) as well as with members of the broader community, including six parents and a school board member.

Table 3: Summary of Research Participants by District and Participant Type

An Identity of Inclusivity

“This is who we are.” “This is what we do.” Statements like these appeared across interviews, irrespective of the interviewee’s district or role. Both Vail and Cecil County have adopted an identity of inclusion that not only reflects their beliefs but permeates their systems and practices. Their commitment to inclusivity is a core value and they engage in continuous improvement efforts to ensure that their model of inclusive education serves all students well.

Interviewees in Cecil County, for example, described inclusive education as a moral imperative, because inclusion works best for all students. Similarly, an administrator in Vail, explained “That’s kind of how inclusive practices started. That just was the value of the community at the time…‘These are our citizens and our people, and we want to keep them all here at home.’” A member of Vail’s governing board elaborated further:

Values alone, however, cannot instigate change. Participants in both districts shared the critical role that leaders (i.e., the superintendent and other central office staff) played in promoting inclusion as a value, and that this helped shift the culture in each district. In Cecil County, for instance, one administrator recollected that the district’s former superintendent proclaimed, “Philosophically, you might not agree with this, but morally, [inclusion] is what’s right for kids. And if you can’t get on that bus, philosophically, you might want to board another.” This is to say that district leaders need to value inclusive education to such a degree that they are willing to stand for it, to sacrifice to ensure its success (e.g., in terms of personnel, funds).

While inclusive schooling requires strong leadership, many interviewees also observed that district personnel need to have a personal commitment to inclusion for it to be a success. Indeed, inclusive schooling requires every district member to take ownership of all students and implement inclusive practices. As an administrator in Vail stated:

The shared value of inclusion solidified each district personnel’s commitment to engage in such challenging work. With inclusive practices ingrained in each district’s culture, there is an expectation that all students with disabilities will be included in the general education classroom. Inclusive schooling is a non-negotiable for these districts.

The Challenges of Systems Change

Although the specific circumstances that instigated the shift toward greater inclusion differed across districts, several common threads emerged. Chief amongst these was the reality that the move towards inclusive education is one of systems change, not merely policy change. And, as with all attempts at systems change, both districts experienced significant opposition to their initial efforts. As one administrator from Vail reflected:

Administrators in Cecil County reflected on similar opposition. They described how the shift involved ongoing discussions with teachers to explain their new role and why the change benefited students. As one remembered:

As another administrator from Cecil County noted:

Vail experienced similar issues with personnel anxious to continue the status quo. As an administrator in the district put it, “of course there [were] some families and teachers who didn’t quite understand [the] mindset [of fading one-on-one support], and still don’t. And so, they resisted the idea enthusiastically.” Whether from the belief that more individual support is always preferable or, more cynically, to preserve their positions, individuals resisted the initial push toward inclusion. As this same Vail administrator reflected:

Some parents also resisted the move towards inclusion, with interviewees describing a range of perspectives from favorable to skeptical. For instance, one parent ruminated on their own initial resistance to inclusive education: “It wasn’t as consistent as what I would’ve liked. … You just didn’t see that some of the teachers were very good in incorporating the child into the least restrictive environment.”

At first, some parents of students with disabilities did not agree to their child being taught in the general education setting. When Cecil County moved students back into their home schools, for example, this meant that some students with disabilities still had to be accommodated in separate classrooms. A Cecil County administrator described how this did not live up to parents’ expectations, and eventually, most parents allowed their children to be taught in general education classrooms:

These and other initial challenges (e.g., the ability of teachers to truly accommodate the continuum of learners with significant cognitive disabilities) resulted in both districts shifting to inclusive education slowly and systematically. In fact, interviewees described a multiple-year timeline for how they went from deciding to fully include students with significant cognitive disabilities to it being common practice in their district. As another administrator from Cecil County recalled:

This points to a key strategy embraced by both districts in their moves toward inclusion: a gradual approach. Here is how a third administrator from Cecil County summarized it:

Full implementation of an inclusive approach took time for both districts. Once they began the process, however, momentum grew and informed the creation of values-driven systems.

Moving the System

While a gradual approach to systems change proved effective, both districts also embraced several proactive strategies to ensure their success. First, both enacted inclusive models with a community-centric approach. This is to say that both Vail and Cecil County understand that schools are intrinsic parts of a wider community and they, therefore, recognized the importance of securing buy-in from a wide range of stakeholders. Second, both districts built systems to capture input from diverse stakeholders, especially through the use of a distributed leadership model. Together, these approaches helped ensure that the move to inclusion remained on track.

Grounding in Community

The scale of change required that both districts marshal input from a broad range of stakeholders, helping to ensure buy-in. Grounding the shift to inclusion within the wider community proved to be a key ingredient in both districts’ success. As one administrator from Vail summarized:

Likewise, Cecil County’s attentiveness to the entire community helped to keep the effort on track:

Interviewees from both districts attested to the importance of education being a community endeavor. They described how education extends beyond the school’s walls into the community and how the community supports schooling. Official language from each district further supports this. Cecil County’s mission statement, for example, concludes, “We will ensure all learners acquire the knowledge, skills, and qualities to be responsible, caring, and ethical citizens.” Vail’s motto is simply “Where education is a community effort.” Indeed, as many participants attested, these are not mere words, but values that inform the districts’ work and dictate their engagement with students, the students’ families, and the rest of the community.

Schooling as an Extension of Community. Leadership teams in both districts discussed their efforts to not only meet academic needs, but also to create space for community gatherings, to design programming that leads students toward independent adult lives, and to provide other resources. This community rootedness helps explain each district’s commitment to inclusive education. As a teacher from Vail described:

Furthermore, interviewees described a mutually constitutive relationship between the districts’ inclusive practices and community-level social capital. In particular, leaders in each district relied significantly on entrepreneurial social infrastructure[4]. As a related services provider in Cecil County described:

Both districts also described mechanisms for sustaining their commitment to inclusive schooling, for example by creating accessible pathways between the school and the community. Interviewees in both districts described providing vocational training and resources that connect students with significant cognitive disabilities to community life. They also explained how the process of tapping into community assets unfolded over time and continues to evolve. Stakeholders in both districts view schooling as an extension of community life and embrace students with significant cognitive disabilities as a part of—not apart from—schooling and thus community life. For example, an administrator in Vail described vocational opportunities:

Importantly, intermediary organizations that straddle the boundaries of community life and formal schooling facilitate this bonding of social capital. These organizations include, for example, the Judy Center (Cecil County) and Sonora Behavioral Health (Vail), which can assist families with academic transitions, behavioral health, and key therapies as well as work with the districts to enhance their programming to better serve students with these needs.

Over time, the growth of inclusive practices also surfaced the need to bridge across networks, helping to make the districts’ work visible at the state level. In Vail, for example, several educators undertook doctoral work at the University of Arizona, which they connected to district-wide professional development and state-level advocacy. Both districts now recognize their roles in helping families gain access to, on the one hand, statewide resources that meet the immediate needs of students with significant cognitive disabilities and, on the other, opportunities that facilitate the transition from school to postsecondary life.

Home and School Partnerships. Effectively including students with disabilities in general education settings requires family involvement. Personnel from Vail and Cecil County view parents as partners; educators and family members regularly collaborate to promote learning and find solutions when a particular approach does not work for a student. Parents and district personnel often described meetings, classroom-level interactions, and extracurricular events that indicated a transformational (rather than transactional) relationship between school, families, and communities. For instance, Vail implemented site councils that provide parents with a way to engage meaningfully in decision-making. As one parent noted:

Recognizing that not all families can serve on site councils and the like prompted each district to find other ways of soliciting input. For instance, both districts described inviting parents into the inclusive setting and looking to them for feedback on individual student needs and how to foster outcomes that have a community-level impact. Parents in Vail and Cecil County are integral team members whose expertise about their own children is valued and respected. Both Vail and Cecil County intentionally include parents in discussions and ensure they have a voice in decisions impacting their children. One Cecil County administrator elaborated:

In our interviews with parents, they described how open communication was key in building trust and fostering positive, partnering relationships that bring continuity between school and home. This communication came both in the form of formal interactions, and also informal, as a Cecil County administrator noted, “And it really built a bridge that just connected us. So, it was beyond a daily communication log. It was beyond sitting at an IEP table. It was a, ‘Hey, I'm seeing this.’" A teacher in Vail also described how they leveraged technology to keep parents informed on their child’s services and share resources with them:

Structures that Promote Systems Change

For Vail and Cecil County, community functions as both a value undergirding the push for inclusion as well as a strategy for bringing it about. But beyond tailoring their approaches to community context, both districts promoted change within that context. This, in turn, required that each district build systems to manage (and facilitate the input of) the many stakeholders from across the community.

The districts’ personnel–from central office and building administrators through instructional and support staff–are all part of an organizational hierarchy that promotes distributed leadership and feedback loops that help maintain the system. Leaders recognize the human capital that permeates all levels of the hierarchy, and each district has the infrastructure to implement an inclusive model. Although strategies for implementing systems-change varied across districts, both Vail and Cecil County relied on a well-defined administrative hierarchy and shared leadership model.

Administrative Hierarchy. Both Vail and Cecil County have administrative leadership teams that include personnel from across the district. Central office administrators primarily oversee districtwide governance and implementation. District administrators also follow through on the commitment to inclusive education by creating value statements for students and staff that are used districtwide. Further, district administrators also develop common structures that increase the feasibility of meeting students’ needs in general education settings and that sustain inclusive education going forward (e.g., by fostering transparency with the community and engaging all personnel through continued professional learning). In describing how a new policy will unfold in the district, an administrator from Vail provided insight into their shared leadership structure.

Both districts employ administrative, instructional, and support personnel in roles specific to learners with disabilities (e.g., special education director, school psychologist supervisor, districtwide behavior consultant) as well as personnel in specific service areas (e.g., speech and language). Building-level administrators–especially those with inclusive educational expertise–provide leadership and consistency within and across buildings. All district buildings have members of the administrative leadership team on site and reporting structures and feedback loops in place to facilitate distributed leadership.

Leaders in both districts invite stakeholders from across the organizational hierarchy to partake in the problem-solving process–what Fullan (2020) calls “joint determination.” Each district’s vision informs a blueprint for erecting infrastructure in support of inclusive practices. This infrastructure spans the districts’ large physical footprint—several hundred square miles and over 20 buildings in the case of both Vail and Cecil County. Furthermore, accessibility includes access to facilities district-wide, the curriculum, and social spaces and activities (e.g., clubs and sports). Similarly, the districts create consistency through the adoption of curricula and other academic materials as well as social, emotional, and behavioral resources. A central office administrator in Vail described how the district’s behavior intervention team provides support when needed:

Interviewees shared the importance of building teams (typically led by a principal) that painstakingly create each student’s schedule based on individualized needs, the overall grade-level make-up, and the feasibility of educators collaborating with one another in a sufficient quantity and quality of time to meet each other’s needs. Teams design schedules to prevent behavioral breakdowns (e.g., staggering difficult classes with easier ones; alternating sensory-intensive classes with less intensive ones) and to provide a “push-in” (rather than “pull-out”) service-delivery model. Although systematic scheduling presents challenges (e.g., additional planning time), it pays dividends. One Cecil County central office administrator explained:

Distributed leadership practices–enacted through various systems and structures–cultivate inclusion for the building and the district. Other personnel also spoke about the issues of transition planning. A teacher provided an example of how their school enacted a “freshman academy” to support the transition to high school through the use of cohorts. A related services provider described using practices like a “communication passport,” which fosters educators’ insight into student needs by providing a historical repository for contributions from various stakeholders (including students themselves) and which accompanies that student across grade levels to provide continued documentation.

Inclusive Instructional Leadership. Within the context of distributed leadership, administrators in both districts adopt a view of inclusive instructional leadership. This means building and district administration act in a way that promotes high levels of learning systemwide - including all subgroups of students (Howley & Telfer, 2020). Principals shared how they attend instructional team meetings to learn with and from the personnel in their buildings and to create an environment where their staff can improve their implementation of inclusive practices to increase learning for all students. This allows the disparate parts of the system (or those in unique roles) to work towards a common goal: working together to support all students. Reflections from occupational therapists in each district underline this finding. For example, an OT from Cecil County noted:

Likewise, in Vail, an OT related that:

Two core practices of inclusive instructional leadership are administrators’ intentionality in building districtwide capacity through support and accountability and fostering an open and collaborative culture. The section that follows describes supports to advance these practices.

Additional Structures. Opportunities for professional development as well as orientations provided to new hires offer yet more evidence of the districtwide support that Vail and Cecil County provide, manifesting what Fullan (2020) describes as a “culture of accountability.” Crucially, questions and discussions regarding inclusive norms for students with significant cognitive disabilities are a part of all new hire interviews and orientations. This is not only for teachers and administrators, but for new personnel in any role–“with a new hire orientation, anybody that works for the district, bus driver or lunch monitor, special needs parapro, classroom parapro”–as one Vail administrator explained.

Teachers in both districts discussed ongoing professional development and coaching that continue year-to-year. Administrators also described the importance of sustained professional learning for helping all personnel to understand the importance of (and how to implement) inclusive education. As one central office administrator from Cecil County described:

Commitment to inclusivity requires that leaders create room for flexibility across the system while still maintaining continuity with regard to access. Both districts view accessibility not just through the lens of physical access (to and within buildings), but also in terms of access to the curriculum and programming. And both districts attend to the social, emotional, and behavioral resources that further advance accessibility.

Principals from both districts communicated the importance of their efforts in fostering an inclusive culture. They shared the importance of attending teachers’ team meetings to stay informed about their school’s teaching and learning, particularly as it relates to students with disabilities. Principals also described how they use walkthroughs to stay informed and how they regularly check in with the educators in their building to ensure all the structures and supports are in place for them to be successful. They also described their involvement in schoolwide data collection and in analyzing outcomes for different subgroups of students within their building. A Cecil County principal described the support they provide teams through data-based discussions:

A Vail central office administrator also shared how district teams attend to each school’s data and each grade’s data to explore patterns that warrant attention:

Principals spoke about the importance of the special educator’s role in consulting with general educators regarding methods to meet the needs of children with disabilities to improve teaching and learning. They would sometimes need to encourage special educators to be more outspoken in their communication about different methods a teacher could try. These practices characterize the actions of inclusive instructional leaders and showcase a climate where all school personnel are willing contributors to the mission of inclusive education.

COVID-19: A Check and Balance to the System

Significant disrupters like the COVID-19 pandemic can indicate the extent to which a system functions successfully. Leaders in both districts recognized this. As one administrator described the transition back to face-to-face schooling:

Another administrator explained that the pandemic also tested the overall commitment to inclusive practices:

While these quotes highlight the districts’ successes in light of COVID’s massive disruption, participants also reflected on ways in which the pandemic stressed the system:

1. Equity of access to academic resources, facilities, and social supports: During the height of the pandemic, students with the most significant cognitive disabilities were often the most siloed in the virtual learning environment because remote learning created further barriers to their participation. However, during the transition back to in-person learning this was sometimes reversed. Priority was given to students with significant cognitive disabilities, while bringing back other students was, at times, postponed.
2. Contributions from community-level social capital: In general, both districts experienced diminished community support at the height of the pandemic, and also in the transition back to in-person schooling. The tension they attributed this to was the tug between the greater good (e.g., focused on equity of access and resource distribution) versus an elevated push for individual gain.
3. Rethinking programming and resources: Both districts identified programming issues and resource gaps that became apparent throughout the pandemic. These were turned into action steps.
4. Staffing and facility capacity: The pandemic revealed where each system was overextended in regard to gaps in staffing and space constraints.

The Implementation of Inclusive Practices

Effective use of inclusive practices is multifaceted. Identifying which practices to use based on a student’s presenting needs and how to use them (e.g., frequency, intensity) requires ongoing collaborative teaming. Peers also play a crucial role in modeling and supporting students to be successful and independent. This section unpacks these aspects of inclusive education along with the specific environmental and instructional practices identified by interviewees.

Collaborative Teaming

In Vail and Cecil County, collaboration between personnel proved key to their implementation of inclusive practices. General educators, special educators, related service providers, and paraeducators work in partnership as interdependent members of instructional teams. Interviewees described standing meetings that team members use to improve their teaching and student learning. Other meetings foster dialogue about specific students and their needs, helping to create or revise a student’s plan. Team meetings also facilitate discussion of upcoming academic content and enable educators to plan for the materials and resources needed for each student to access and master the content.

Participants in Vail and Cecil County described how general educators often co-teach with special educators and paraeducators. Interviewees provided various examples of co-teaching models like parallel direct instruction, one-teach and one-support, one-teach and one follow-up support, and team teaching. Importantly, though, co-teaching requires shared ownership from both (all) educators. Here a building coordinator in Cecil Council reflected on this aspect of their co-teaching experiences:

Instructional team members work across areas and collaborate so that all members contribute and demonstrate respect for one another’s expertise. As an occupational therapist in Vail explained, such collaboration is the opposite of a “You do this, and I’ll do that” mentality. Instead, teams engage mutually to create shared (rather than standalone) goals for students, which foster inclusive programming that meets each student’s individualized needs.

These qualities align with Cohen & Bailey’s (1997) characterization of teams being groups of individuals who are interdependent social entities who share the responsibility for achieved outcomes. Teachers commented that they regularly seek out other team members’ points of view and reflect on their practice to promote each student’s learning. Such collaboration occurs between veteran and novice personnel alike and across both instructional and support staff. This not only improves educators’ knowledge and skills, it also builds trust among team members and provides opportunities to reinforce the districts’ inclusive values. A Cecil County school psychologist described the benefits of collaborative teaming:

Vail and Cecil County foster shared ownership. The shared belief about doing what is right for all students motivates personnel to live up to their individual and collective responsibilities for the success of each student. Both individual and collective efficacy ensure the system remains successful for each district. Interviewees in both Vail and Cecil County emphasized that, for inclusion to work, educators must come together and support one another to meet students’ learning needs. As a special education teacher from Vail described:

Peer Support and Mentoring

In Vail and Cecil County, students with significant cognitive disabilities are educated alongside their peers from the time they enter preschool until they graduate from high school. Both districts train students with and without disabilities to mentor and support their peers. In fact, peer mentors are among the most utilized resources in each district. Peer mentors provide academic and non-academic support. In the early years of schooling, peers often serve as models (e.g., using positive skills) and, as students get older, peers transition to the role of mentor (i.e., actively providing support). For example, a Vail administrator described the systemic nature of their peer mentoring program:

Interviewees described leveraging one student’s strengths to support another student’s success in the general education setting. For example, an educator might teach assertive or rule-follower students to use words or gestures to prompt another student to focus, stay on task, or use a quiet voice. As students get older and enter middle and high school, peers may work with students with disabilities to help them understand social cues. Some interviewees in Vail (e.g., parents and teachers) even described how peers could sometimes provide more assistance than a teacher or paraeducator because students are motivated to work with their peers and engage in prosocial behaviors. As a parent from Vail described:

Consequently, peer mentorship produces a tremendous impact. Peers form authentic relationships with their mentees. Peers learn important skills from working with others. Students with disabilities develop new academic or social skills. The support provided by peers has the added benefit of being from a more natural source, that is, it may be typical of what a student might receive outside of school.

In both Vail and Cecil County, educators teach peer mentors about different disabilities and their presenting needs while providing training (similar to that provided to paraeducators) on how best to support the student with whom they are partnered. While both districts implemented a competitive process to identify who can serve as a peer mentor, the individuals selected vary across many parameters. One teacher from Vail, for example, described that some of their best peer mentors were children who often received reprimands. The peer mentoring relationship is symbiotic: it benefits the child with significant needs through the provision of targeted support and it benefits the mentor by giving them the responsibility that forces focus and attention. A parent of a child with disabilities described this mutual benefit when she discussed the growth her child made when he served as a peer mentor to another child with a significant disability:

The districts’ willingness to consider all students as potential peer mentors is another example of the value that Vail and Cecil County place on inclusivity with all individuals being valued members of the school community.

Classroom Practices

The educational environment impacts the quality of learning opportunities and outcomes in school (Sanders et al., 2018). An inclusive physical space provides all students with the equipment and materials they need to learn as well as ensures their safety. Educators in Vail and Cecil County create this positive learning environment in multiple ways, for example by making accommodations to the setting and to materials right in the classroom. This helps students access the rigorous grade-level curriculum in a manner that facilitates their mastery of the content. This is also true with respect to social-emotional learning. Students who need to move (e.g., pace, jump, fidget) can do so right in the classroom, and students with limited language are encouraged to vocalize or use augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) systems to communicate with adults and peers. From the beginning of schooling in these districts, students see and hear these differences in engagement and communication, and they learn how to interact in relevant ways with their peers. Accepting and normalizing the differences with which students engage in the environment and participate in the daily activities of school fosters a psychologically safe environment for all students. This safety gives students the opportunity to contribute to the learning environment and attests to the fact that, in Vail and Cecil County, all students are valued members of the school community.

In both districts, educators bring intentionality to their interactions with students with significant cognitive disabilities in order to create meaningful ways for them to participate. For example, they create consistent routines in the classroom, house all adapted materials in the general education environment, and create natural opportunities for students to practice skills. Creating an environment that allows all students to be active members of the school community is far from easy. It requires in-depth knowledge of each student along with significant prep time to develop all the materials necessary for them to participate. A teacher from Cecil County reflected on the importance of this preparation:

Whereas educators from both districts described the importance of preparation for students’ success, interviewees also noted that services outside of the general education setting were sometimes needed to help students focus or decompress. Educators described the importance of having separate spaces that students can access to take a break, relax from the demands of the classroom (e.g., sensory, task-oriented), and reset in order to get back to the general education environment. All personnel understand that these spaces are the last resort and that, prior to relying on them, other classroom accommodations or peer and/or adult support need to be tried. Accommodations within the inclusive setting always precede pull-out services, and such spaces are used sparingly and only with the purpose of returning students back to the inclusive environment as quickly as possible. Although these services are only used as needed, there is potentially a universal benefit to all students, with and without disabilities, to have an inclusive setting that allows for breaks from the classroom.

Strategies to Promote Access to the General Education Curriculum. In Vail and Cecil County, the presumed competence that instructional teams afford all students sets the expectation for all learners to not only receive their education in inclusive settings but to have access and engagement in the general education curriculum. Instruction for learners with significant cognitive disabilities is individualized based on each student’s needs, and these needs guide the accommodations, modifications, and scaffolds used to promote student learning. For example, accommodations may be used to adapt a student’s work to make it more interesting. A parent from Vail described how her daughter’s teachers would create math word problems that include her favorite Disney characters, motivating her to complete her work. A teacher from Vail also described making accommodations for a student who experienced heightened anxiety when his work was not completed perfectly. His anxiety had become a barrier to completing a daily journal, so she gave him a whiteboard to use so that he could erase when needed and create a journal response that satisfied him. Once finished, they took a picture of the writing and put it into his journal. Principles of universal design for learning (UDL) help students access grade-level curriculum.

Others also described using UDL accommodations and modifications to support students during core instruction in math. A special educator in Vail, for instance, noted:

Whereas participation in the activity may look different for each student, access to the general education content is always there. As one parent emphasized:

Across districts, educators described how they regularly collect data on student performance and use it to inform whether or not to reteach content or provide additional enrichment opportunities because the student has mastered the target. During these formative assessments, educators use accommodations to remove unnecessary barriers that could prevent students with disabilities from showing what they know and can do. All students who demonstrate mastery receive the enrichment learning opportunity, just like all students who do not demonstrate mastery receive additional instructional opportunities to learn the knowledge and skills. These data then inform the targeted instruction that can be provided based on student needs.

Sometimes educators modify targeted learning outcomes based on a student’s individual needs. This allows all students to participate in the rigorous core instruction of their grade level while individual learning targets align with the next step of the learning progression on which they are working. One Vail special educator described the role that a special education teacher plays in modifying assignments, in this case, related to literacy:

In addition to accommodations and modifications, teachers also described their use of specific practices and interventions to meet student needs. Examples of practices specific to academic learning included functional/real-world opportunities to practice skills, visual supports, academic task reminders (e.g., writing checklist), adapted books, discrete trial training, task systems, manipulatives, and questioning to ensure understanding. Likewise, practices that would support social, emotional, and behavioral needs included positive behavioral supports, check-in/check-out, visual schedules, and various peer engagement strategies. Notably, teachers in both Vail and Cecil County emphasized their use of these practices in the general education environment as well as the importance of providing the appropriate level of support to meet students’ needs while promoting their independence.

Perennial and Systemic Challenges with Inclusive Education

Despite the many encouraging successes in both Vail and Cecil County, each district continues to navigate several ongoing challenges. These challenges might be grouped into two rough categories: perennial and systemic. Perennial challenges are those that continue to persist and for which there are likely no solutions; systemic challenges, on the other hand, can be addressed even if the solutions require further systems-change work, and even if that systems-change work is outside the scope of what any district can meaningfully accomplish (e.g., as with problems requiring state or federal solutions).

Perennial Challenges

The perennial challenge encountered in both Vail and Cecil County—and for that matter in all districts—is that meaningful inclusion is new and different work, and while strategies are being implemented to make the work less taxing, there is still a need to support the complex needs of our students. As an administrator in Cecil County reflected:

Indeed, as the administrator noted, “there are no simple solutions to complex problems.” There are, however, strategies that make this complicated work more manageable. One administrator from Vail, for instance, described how their district’s culture of communication helps them confront this perennial issue:

Although it is unrealistic to think that the work of inclusive education will ever be without challenge, there are plenty of ways districts can ease the burden and prevent negative consequences (e.g., burnout, community opposition to inclusion). Creating a culture of open communication is one solution, but there are others. Administrators in each district described a vision of inclusive education that focuses intensively on the local community. Our communities are currently stretched, however. For example, both districts serve large geographic areas, and because of the remoteness of the community or distance from the metropolitan area, participants reported that families rely on the district for support.

While both districts value inclusion and build partnerships across the community to facilitate this goal, occasionally situations arise that create a direct conflict with inclusive schooling. Schools sometimes work with students for whom inclusive schooling is not always possible because they are a risk to themselves or others. Both districts described instances where students with intensive behavioral or mental health concerns would need to be moved temporarily to another setting to address their complex needs. But even if this situation arises, teachers and administrators sustain their shared responsibility for the students without letting the new placement be an excuse to not serve the student. Indeed, a principal of a school in Cecil County with an intensive behavioral support class highlighted the value that the district places on cross-building and cross-agency partnerships to ensure students’ success in transitioning back to their home school.

Here’s how one administrator in Vail described the difficult decision to remove a student from an inclusive setting:

It is important to stress that this administrator (and other interviewees) characterized the transition to a more restrictive environment as temporary, further noting that “we don’t do it lightly, and we don’t do it often.” As another administrator in Vail put it, “these are extreme cases.” Personnel from Cecil County shared this perspective, noting that they also take such cases seriously, emphasizing that the decision to move a student from their school to a more restrictive setting is temporary and that, during that time, personnel across sites work to ensure the student’s safe transition back to the home school. Importantly, both districts have built an infrastructure so that only students with the most severe needs require outplacement and all parties understand that this separate placement is for a limited time.

Systemic Challenges

Community also plays a key role. Having the value of inclusion, for instance, mandates that districts treat students with disabilities as equal members of the community. And adopting a community-focused approach means that districts must be concerned with issues that may be outside of their typical scope. These problems are systemic in nature.

One problem facing both districts concerns personnel shortages and turnover. As one administrator in Cecil County noted, there is a “high rate of attrition for special education teachers and professionals…And that is nationwide. There is an epidemic right now with attrition.” To counter this, Cecil County has worked to provide “job-based professional development to support [teachers].” One way of mitigating this issue is through the use of paraeducators, though this is not without its own challenges. Some educators and family members resist the idea of fading one-on-one support, coming from the mindset that individual support is always better. An administrator in Vail reflected:

Both districts grappled with the question of how to navigate personnel and community members who believe that the way to achieve success in inclusive schooling is through adults who overcompensate for students with disabilities. As one Vail administrator reflected:

But this points to another tension with the use of paraeducators: relying on the least paid members of the school to do some of its hardest work. As a teacher from Vail put it:

Of course, there are other structural issues, too: funding, for example. Inclusive education requires more staffing and upgrades to physical spaces districtwide to ensure schools and classrooms can accommodate the different needs and co-teaching arrangements characteristic of inclusive schooling. As a teacher in Vail reflected:

Cecil County experienced similar issues with funding. A central office administrator there tied funding to another issue affecting both districts: the relationship between funding and politics, and whether or not the community will support extra expenses to fund inclusive education.

Of course, politics does not only affect funding. There are political implications across the educational spectrum that impact districts, which can impede how administrators can use strategic planning and implementation of inclusive practices to support students in inclusive settings. One interviewee from Cecil County detailed the effect that politics can have on the curriculum in their relating an experience about a restorative practices initiative:

Outcomes of Inclusive Education

Taking a community approach to inclusive education has produced one clear and pronounced outcome in both Vail and Cecil County: widespread community acceptance of individuals with disabilities. Across interviews with members of each district, anecdotes of this community acceptance appeared again and again. While the nature of this acceptance varied from anecdote to anecdote, together they illustrate a profound shift: inclusive education enacted with a community-centric lens decreases the marginalization of individuals with disabilities that is so prevalent elsewhere. Here’s how one parent from Vail described this:

Inclusion remains visible no matter where you go in each district, but it begins in the classroom as one Cecil County teacher reflected: “I think it’s affected them in a positive light…I feel like they feel like they’re part of the classroom.” This acceptance, however, also extends beyond the classroom. As a teacher from Vail commented, “being able to go at recess and at lunchtime and see students that I support who may have significant cognitive disabilities…fully integrated and playing with their peers. To me, [that] is one of the biggest indicators of inclusive practices.”

Acceptance in the school environment was not the only type of acceptance that surfaced. Interviewees from both districts described the acceptance of individuals with disabilities in the wider community. A parent from Vail described the experiences of her son who had graduated from the district:

Other outcomes appear to be mutually constitutive and, for that matter, do not only extend to students with disabilities. Interviewees described positive outcomes for all students. For example, one administrator in Vail described growth in empathy as a result of inclusion:

But this outcome was no accident. These districts adopted specific policies to promote successful inclusive education for all students—the use of peer mentors, for example. Yet, even students who do not peer mentor see students with significant disabilities in their classrooms. Parents, teachers, and administrators alike described the relationships and friendships students with and without significant disabilities form and maintain for years. Interviewees described how these relationships improve the community by setting students up for postsecondary life. This notion resonated as a Vail high school teacher described their goal for all students:

The benefits of inclusive education are not only social. They have translated into educational successes. Here an administrator from Cecil County described this:

Inclusive education has also led to improved postsecondary outcomes for students with disabilities. For example, prior to the pandemic, over 90% of Vail’s graduates were engaged in postsecondary education, work, or another training program (compared to roughly 76% for the rest of Arizona). Moreover, across both districts, interviewees emphasized transition planning for postsecondary success (e.g., bi-annual conferences with the school counselor to ensure students are on track for graduation, fading support to foster greater independence prior to graduation, developing a 504 plan in preparation for obtaining postsecondary support). A Vail administrator reflected on this:

Of course, when districts improve outcomes in this way, it leads to other outcomes, too. Both districts, for example, experienced an influx of people moving there just to take advantage of these inclusive services. Here, an administrator from Cecil County described this phenomenon:

An administrator in Vail commented that “People flock to get to the schools there, so it really draws in families … that are seeking better services, especially special education services.” Another administrator shared that Vail experienced such rapid growth they had to get creative with how they served students so their buildings were not overcrowded:

Truly students in Vail and Cecil County have benefited from the inclusive education experiences they have received. Individuals with disabilities are accepted in their school and communities. Students experience positive social and academic growth, and this lends itself to improved postsecondary success. These successes translate to families and communities who are stronger as a result of the inclusive educational experiences their children have received in the district.

Discussion and Implications

Inclusive education occurs districtwide in both Vail and Cecil County. From the time students enroll in either district until the day they exit school, they experience an educational environment inclusive of other students of all strengths, needs, abilities, and differences who are participating as valued members of the school community. This perspective, of all people being valuable members of the community, was echoed across interviews in Vail and Cecil County, where district representatives described their approach to inclusive education as going beyond students with disabilities being accepted by their peers to students being a meaningful part of the school community. Interviewees described how this meaningful inclusion from preschool through graduation normalizes the reality that each member of the school community is unique, that every member has something to offer, and that it is the shared responsibility of all members to ensure each and every student is included in all aspects of their education.

Interviewees from both districts described a belief that students with disabilities should do the same things as their peers and receive the same academic and non-academic opportunities. They presume the competence of all students and they hold high expectations, so each student has the opportunity to rise to the challenges set before them. Vail and Cecil County are committed to serving students and to providing support when and where needed based on each student’s individualized strengths and needs. They give students with disabilities leadership opportunities and get them involved in the community. They believe students with significant cognitive disabilities should receive their specialized services and supports in general education environments and that any additional services and supports that cannot be provided in the general education setting should only be used when needed and for as long as needed – and not more. This approach to education builds each student’s independence and ability to be a productive member of society after graduation. It inspires confidence in students that they can succeed and hope for the potential of their life after graduation.

As mentioned in the findings, there are some instances when it is necessary for school personnel to remove a student from their environment. Although both districts identified ways to allow students with disabilities time to decompress – these opportunities were separate from their typically developing peers. An opportunity exists to promote these safe areas for all students that may be experiencing an emotional, behavioral, or physical need that requires them to be removed from the general education setting. It would be universally beneficial to promote spaces within the school settings that encourage all students – with and without disabilities – to explore safe ways to express themselves.

Community-Grounded Systems Change Model

The findings in this study signify that schooling is a local effort. Administrators from both districts painstakingly outlined the onboarding process with local stakeholders—families, community members, district personnel that shaped the district-wide inclusive practices that led our research team to their doorstep. Similarly, administrators commented on the financial costs of highly inclusive practices, which require local support to fund what other revenue streams from state and federal governments do not. Still, the local school system is enmeshed in a nationwide web of schools that operate under what Tye (2000) has called the “deep structure”, or systemic norms that limit the possibilities for localized innovation. These norms are sustained through a top-down ideology that assumes school reform is realized through common academic standards and external evaluations that measure accountability (Mehta, 2013; Ravitch, 2000). The severe limitation of this belief is it overlooks the capabilities of educational professionals and the capacity for more localized forms of change (Meier & Wood, 2004; Ravitch, 2010).

The Vail and Cecil County school districts’ ability to generate systems change that pushes back against deep structures of public schooling is rooted in a value-based approach oriented towards “the good.” Lightfoot (1983) is one of the first to explore in depth (through portraiture) schools that manage to elevate the moral imperative of schooling to supersede pushes for human capital production. Similarly, in her work Schools that Succeed, Chenoweth (2017) profiles low-income school districts where leadership teams generate systems change and consequently student success (by many measures) through leveraged resources such as time, money, and faculty expertise to position their local school to build social capital for individuals and the community.

Fullan, in his broad scope of work, has repeatedly looked at systems change from the lens of “goodness.” In a recent think piece, Fullan (2020) suggests the nature of educational leadership is changing and includes four attributes of leaders poised to navigate their districts through the stressors of increasingly complex societal issues (pp. 140-141): (1) leaders are experts in the context; (2) leaders intentionally involve multiple stakeholders to solve complex problems; (3) leaders believe in internal accountability and achieve it through forms of individual and collective efficacy; (4) leaders embed their school systems in broader networks that include other schools and intermediary organizations. Leaders in both Vail and Cecil County possessed these attributes and employed them to sustain the systems change that began years ago, but also to navigate systemwide disrupters—for example, the COVID-19 pandemic.

Paralleling the findings that Vail and Cecil County possess the attributes of leaders, the districts also embody the four key domains of an inclusive instructional leadership framework (Howley & Telfer, 2020). These domains are (a) prioritizing the improvement of teaching and learning; (b) building capacity through support and accountability; (c) sustaining an open and collaborative culture; and (d) promoting systemwide learning. Interviewees across districts shared their perspectives and experiences about how they implement inclusive practices by developing effective collaboration systems, building the knowledge and skills of instructional teams, and ensuring all personnel take ownership of students on their school campus. Each district transitioned its approach to education in a slow and systematic manner, garnering buy-in from key stakeholders along the way and allowing the champions and student successes to accelerate the work. This continues to be the approach to the use of new inclusive practices, which, for example, start with a small team or school piloting an initiative and then building it from there, sustaining what works and leaving the rest. These efforts are grounded in each district’s commitment to improving teaching and learning for all students, and to ensuring each student is a valued member of the school community.

Community-Level Social Capital

The struggle for what public schools should “be” and “do” persists. One line of thinking is that public schools are a driver of the economy and the system must be flexible to pivot accordingly. Another, broader line of thinking is that public schools are civic institutions established to support a representative democracy—students are preparing to be active participants when they reach adulthood. Both districts in this study operate within the tensions of these views. Ultimately, their inclusive practices are rooted in the belief that schools can comply with demands associated with mass standardization while still orienting towards the good. This has led to each district becoming necessary to their communities in a distinct way—they have established a track record of building social capital that improves community life. Primarily, this comes from each district’s focus on students with significant cognitive disabilities realizing a continuum of independence in their adult lives and how the districts provide access to the community through academic resources, but also social and developmental supports.

Both Vail and Cecil County also directed concerted attention to the particularities of place. Interviewees reported how local context informed the districts’ systems. This community-oriented view of education draws on the idea that schools constitute an essential part of the nation’s democratic framework, and are not merely a pipeline for creating workers in a capitalist economy (see, e.g., Meier, 2002; 2009). Both districts described coming to the idea that students with significant cognitive disabilities should attend public school in their home community. But while this awakening proved critical, it did not change the complexities involved in making it possible. Each district’s approach to inclusive education required collaboration from multiple stakeholders both inside the district and out. Furthermore, other districts seeking to shift to an inclusive model of education might also benefit from a community-grounded approach.

COVID as Stress to the System that Reveals Weaknesses and Implications

At the onset, the COVID-19 pandemic shut the lights off in public education, and almost immediately the role public schools play in the day-to-day structure of the nation surfaced. In the months that followed frustration emerged as the nation reconciled with the tensions of how and when to return to in-person learning. One agreement was clearly reached: Public schools are necessary for the functioning of families, communities, and the nationwide economy. For the Vail and Cecil County districts, the pandemic made visible the specific role each plays as a key access point. For the first time in decades, children with significant cognitive disabilities and their families struggled to gain adequate access to these supports. This indicated to the districts the extent of their progress over the last decades and the imminent danger regression might impose. Yet it also revealed instabilities within each system. For example, it became clear the onboarding work of community support is not complete. Both districts experienced some setbacks when parents of children across the learning continuum were competing to regain access to the district’s physical spaces. Similarly, resource and staffing gaps became direr during the transition back to in-person learning because of an intensified need for academic, social, and behavioral support, not just for students with disabilities, but for all students.

Implications for Inclusive Education

1. Root systems change in the local context: Leadership in both districts gained momentum for inclusive schooling by first doing the hard work of onboarding local stakeholders (i.e., families, community members, and district personnel) who were often skeptical of the idea. Over time, the onboarding phase transitioned to phases of acceptance, appreciation, normalization, and eventually demand for continued services.
2. Approach IDEA as a moral imperative: Both districts envisioned inclusive education as serving a greater community good and recognized how inclusive schooling simultaneously enhanced the social capital of individuals, and also the community at large. The districts did not merely adhere to IDEA, they integrated inclusive principles and values into the mission and strategic plans for their districts. Importantly, leadership recognized the complexity of this strategy and consistently sought out feedback, and promoted high levels of participation from district personnel.
3. The organizational hierarchy as a support structure: Our research team identified a complex organizational hierarchy in both districts that was necessary to support inclusive education across geographically large districts. Notably, this hierarchy is what made it possible to facilitate inclusive practices systemwide, as opposed to in centralized locales. This hierarchy also formed the basis for internal accountability checks and balances.
4. Focus on the process: Interviewees from districts could identify pivotal moments over the last two to three decades that precipitated change, but it is attention to processes that have sustained change. These processes vary. Some focus on accountability to classroom practices, whereas others deal with hiring and orientation protocols. Sometimes a process is developed in response to disrupting events. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic districts had to establish processes for remote learning options for students with significant cognitive disabilities and then new processes for bringing these students back to campus during the return to in-person learning. Additionally, as the districts’ inclusive practices became more refined, leadership sought opportunities to embed the district into networks that provided external support.

Implications for Future Research

Our findings build upon research that indicates systems change can be used to orient public schooling towards a greater good that serves individuals, but also, critically, the community the local school is in service, too. Case studies of the post-high school experience of adults with significant cognitive disabilities who were once beneficiaries of highly inclusive practices are necessary to further understand the extent to which a school system can help students achieve this form of self-actualization. This study also examined two districts (one rural and one suburban) with large service areas, student populations, and district-wide infrastructure. Given our findings that context matters, similar studies of small rural districts and large urban districts would enhance this line of inquiry. Finally, this case study did not include a representative sample of general educators. Given their role in working with students with and without disabilities, future research should include their lived experiences to fully understand their use of inclusive practices to support all learners.

Conclusion

The research findings are clear. Inclusive education is a districtwide value in Vail and Cecil County, and community-oriented system change efforts ensure the effective implementation of inclusive schooling throughout the district. Neither district believes that the setting in which instruction occurs should be impacted just because a student has a significant disability. Instead, each district starts as inclusive as possible and lessens those inclusive opportunities only if necessary. To promote the success of inclusive opportunities, collaborative teams design and implement the academic, social, emotional, and behavioral supports needed for students to strive and use peers as support as much as possible. Vail and Cecil County's value on inclusive education radiate through each district’s words and actions. Their district teams work diligently to provide students with significant cognitive disabilities the same opportunities that every other student in the district receives. They foster a climate where all students and staff are esteemed school and community members. These districts’ commitment and dedication stem from a belief that access to inclusive education is a right and is what works best for all students. This belief drives their policies, systems, practices, and relationships, which work together to make inclusive education a success. A Vail special education coordinator’s statement summarizes this research:

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Appendix A

Screening Questionnaire

1. What is the district’s view of equity, inclusion, and social justice?
2. What does the district do to support the learning and well-being of all students?
3. To what extent does the district include students with significant cognitive disabilities in general education classrooms?
4. How widespread is this practice across the district?
5. Provide a few examples that explain the extent to which students with significant cognitive disabilities are included in general education classrooms across the district.
6. What district-wide actions have been taken to increase the meaningful and active engagement of students with significant cognitive disabilities across environments (including curricular and non-curricular activities) and/or their relationship building with peers without disabilities?
7. Provide a few examples that explain further what the social interactions of students with significant cognitive disabilities and students without disabilities looks like in your district.
8. What district-wide policies or initiatives encourage or require inclusion of students with significant cognitive disabilities in general education settings?
9. What district-wide structures and supports have you used or expanded upon to promote the use of inclusive practices that result in higher levels of learning for all students, and the movement of students with significant cognitive disabilities to more inclusive settings?

Appendix B

Sample Interview Protocol: Administrators

Introduction & Overview [All stakeholder groups]

• THANK YOU for your time & willingness to participate today.
• Your opinions, perspectives, and ideas are valuable and incredibly important for this work. We are excited to hear and learn from you today.

Introductions

• Who: Interviewer & role in the center/research
• Project goals: The purpose of this project is to describe the context, structures, activities, dispositions, and supports that make inclusive practice effective for students with severe disabilities. We aim to get an in-depth look at what has happened in the past and is currently happening to make inclusive practices successful for two exemplar districts in the United States so we can help other districts learn from this research.
  • Interview purpose: Today, I am hosting this interview to hear your perspective on the district’s [fill in name] inclusive practices.
• Expectations: Our discussion will last approximately an hour. Your participation is completely voluntary. You can stop participating or leave this conversation at any time.
• Recording & confidentiality: I will record this conversation and we will have it transcribed so we don’t miss any important insights.
  • Any feedback or comments you share, will not be linked to you or your name, rather we will summarize trends and experiences from each interview, and identify themes across sessions.
  • Focus groups (if applicable): What is said here, stays here. We ask that you not share other people’s experiences or comments to others outside this group.
• Any questions?

[BEGIN RECORDING]

• Consent: When we shared the interview link with you, she provided you the information document in the message. Given that document and everything I’ve just discussed, would you still like to participate in our discussion today?

Place-based Factor Questions

1. Community is the geographic area that surrounds your district, and includes the citizens living within it, businesses and non-profits, and forms of social infrastructure. Can you describe how your community influences your district’s approach to inclusive practices?

2. In regards to implementing inclusive practices, what assets does the community provide and what role do they play within the district? What barriers do you encounter and how do you respond to those barriers?

a. Possible Follow-Ups:

i. How does state policy influence decisions you make and actions you take in regards to implementing inclusive programming throughout the district/building?

ii. How do you work through barriers affiliated with specific policies?

iii. Do you experience any external pressures from the local community when it comes to inclusive programming?

Broader Mission and Vision Questions

3. Please briefly outline your district’s mission in regards to equity, social justice, and inclusive practices.

4. Can you recall a pivotal moment that led to widespread change across the district?

a. Possible Follow-Ups:

i. How many years have you been with the district? Upon reflection, how has your definition of inclusion changed over your time working within the district? (Ask in increments of 5 years.)

ii. We understand your district’s broader mission of inclusion to be (summarize from their response). Building upon this, what supports do you offer classroom teachers? What about families?

iii. The COVID-19 pandemic is considered a historical disrupter to public education nationwide. In the case of your district, how has the pandemic allowed you to recognize successful inclusion practice as well as areas of weakness?

Organizational Synergy Questions

5. Would you describe specific ways your district focuses on inclusion across buildings and grade levels, and the policies that encourage or require inclusive practices throughout individual classrooms?

a. Possible Follow-Ups:

i. Throughout the interviews we learned some of the key ways the district focuses on inclusion (summarize). Which practices are the most widespread?

ii. As an administrative team, how do you evaluate the implementation of inclusive practices? Through these evaluations, what issues have you encountered, and how do you address them?

Agency, Action, and Classroom Autonomy at the Building Level Questions

6. What structures and supports have you used to provide opportunities for students with significant cognitive disabilities to access inclusive settings?

7. What structures and supports have you used to encourage higher levels of learning for all students in inclusive settings.

a. Possible Follow-Ups:

i. Throughout the interviews we’ve learned some of the key ways the district focuses on inclusion (summarize). Describe what that looks like from your perspective. What role do you plan in those efforts?

ii. As a building administrator, how did you first introduce these programs or policies with your staff?

Additional possible follow-ups: Did you face any resistance, and if so, how did you approach resolving that? Did you have early adopters that engaged more enthusiastically, and if so, what separated those staff form the others?

iii. As a building administrator, how do you monitor the progress of these programs and evaluate their effectiveness?

Additional possible follow-ups: How would a staff member be rewarded for excelling at implementing these practices? How would a staff member be remediated if struggling to implement these practices effectively/appropriately?

Social & Peer Engagement Questions

8. What district-wide actions have been taken to increase the meaningful and active engagement of students with significant cognitive disabilities across environments (including curricular and non-curricular activities) and/or their relationship building with peers without disabilities?

a. Possible follow-ups:

i. How have these practices changed culture the social communities in your district/building/classroom?

ii. What is the district’s rationale or your personal rationale for encouraging peer involvement?

iii. What have reactions been like for parents of students without disabilities and the community at large?

Appendix C

Table C1. Final Categories, Definitions, and Example Codes

Appendix D

Table D1. District Demographics (NCES)

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• Ottley, J. R., Yahn, J. J., Clifton, J. A., & Storie, S. O. (2023). This is who we are and what we do: A case study of two districts exemplifying inclusivity. TIES Center; https://tiescenter.org/.

TIES Center is supported through a cooperative agreement between the University of Minnesota and the Research to Practice Division, Office of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education (# H326Y170004). The Center is affiliated with the National Center on Educational Outcomes (NCEO) which is affiliated with the Institute on Community Integration (ICI) at the College of Education and Human Development, University of Minnesota. The contents of this report were developed under the Cooperative Agreement from the U.S. Department of Education, but do not necessarily represent the policy or opinions of the U.S. Department of Education or Offices within it. Readers should not assume endorsement by the federal government. Project Officer: Susan Weigert

The National Center on Educational Outcomes (NCEO) leads the TIES Center partnership. Collaborating partners are: Arizona Department of Education, CAST, University of Cincinnati, University of Kentucky, University of North-Carolina–Charlotte, and the University of North Carolina–Greensboro.

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